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THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

A PRACTICAL GUIDE 



MANUFACTURE OF ALL KINDS OF ALLOYS, AMALGAMS, 
AND SOLDERS, USED BY METAL-WORKERS; 

TOGETHER WITH THEIR 

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND THEIR 

APPLICATION IN THE ARTS AND THE 

INDUSTRIES ; 

WITH APPENDIX ON THE COLORING OF ALLOYS. 

• VD EDITED CHIEFLY PROM THE GERMAN OF 

A. vxd ANDREAS WILDBERGER, 

VTITH EXTENSIVE IDDITIONB BY 

WILLIAM T. BRANNT, 

ONE OF THE EDITORS OF "THE TECH ■ HKMICAL RECEIPT-BOOK," ETC. 

¥" ILLUST I ENC 



°t 



n^ 



PHIL A DELPHI A : 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, 
810 WALNUT STREET. 

LONDO X : 
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE & RIVINGTON, Limited, 

ST. DVHSTAK'B HOCBB, FETTER l.ANE, FLEET BTRBBT. 

1889 




\ 






A 






COPriilGHT BY 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 

1888. 



f 



PHILADELPHIA! 
COLLINS PRINTING HOUSE, 

705 Jayne Street. 



<y 



PREFACE. 



It is not claimed that the work here presented actually 
fills a void in our technical literature, but it is believed 
that there is no other recent one in the English language 
on the Metallic Alloys which combines with practical use- 
fulness a sufficiently popular character for those readers 
who have not made Metallurgy and its kindred Arts 
objects of special study. The endeavor has been made 
to offer a book which fully treats on all matters relating 
to the subject, and which will explain to the Mechanic 
and Artist the properties of the metallic alloys and 
amalgams as far as they find application in any branch 
of technology and the industries. 

The principal portion of this volume is a translation 
of the German work, Die Legirwagen by A. Krupp, 
to which such additions have been made as seemed 
necessary to bring it up to the present time. In the 
older works many alloys, which have in modern times 



IV PREFACE. 

assumed great importance and form the basis of large 
branches of industry, are scarcely mentioned, as for 
instance the valuable alloys of aluminium, German 
silver, phosphor-bronze, etc. These have been fully 
treated in this volume, as have been the behavior of 
the different metals towards one another, the various 
methods of manufacturing alloys, and their specific 
properties. Great care has been exercised in aiming 
to select only such receipts as have stood the test 
in practice, and hence it is hoped that« the work may, 
to all persons professionally interested in the manu- 
facture and use of alloys, amalgams, and solders, prove 
a reliable guide. 

The scope of the work has been enlarged by the ad- 
dition of an Appendix, giving approved receipts for 
bronzing and coloring alloys. 

W. T. B. 



Philadelphia, October 15, 1S88. 



CONTENTS 



I. Introduction. 

PAGE 

Explanation of the terms alloy and amalgam ; General belief 
concerning alloys ; Earliest historical data in reference to 
the compounding of metals ; Early general use of brass . , 25 

Preparation of alloys by the Greeks ; Early alloying of the 
noble metals ......... 26 

Bronze, the earliest product of mixed metals ; Historical 
order of alloys ; Use of amalgams by the Greeks and 
Arabians ; Ancient use of fire gilding metallic articles ; 
Alloys known at the commencement of the reign of Char- 
lemagne ; Development of chemistry principally due to 
the Arab-Moors 27 

Influence of alchemy upon modern chemistry ; Admixtures 
of metals in the middle ages ; Coinage in the middle ages 28 

Preparation of metals from minerals by chemical action ; 
Number of metals found among the elementary bodies ; 
Present knowledge of metals ..... 29 

II. Physical and Chemical Rklations of Metals. 

Necessity of a knowledge of the elements to be alloyed . 30 
Division of the elementary bodies into groups by chemists; 
Physical relations of the metals ; General understanding 
of the term metal ; Consideration of the term metal from 
the standpoint of the chemist . . . . . .31 

Characteristic lustre found in metals; Ductility of metals; 
Opacity of metals 32 

A* 



VI CONTEXTS. 

PAGE 

Fusibility, weight, ductility, solidity, and conductibility of 
metals 33 

Chemical relations of the metals ; Affinity of the different 
metals for oxygen ; Division of metals into base and noble 34 

Heavy and light metals ; Group division of the light metals 35 

Alkali metals ; Metals of the alkaline earths ; Metals of the 
earths proper 36 

Decomposition of water by the light metals; By the heavy 
metals ; Group divisions of the heavy metals according to 
their chemical behavior in contact with water . . 37 

Designation of an alloy ; Fusion of metals ; Influences of 
various metals in admixtures ; Influence of non-metallic 
bodies upon metals 39 

Influence of carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, and arsenic upon 
metals ; Characteristics of pure iron ; Description and 
properties of steel ; Of cast-iron . . . . .40 

Influence of sulphur or phosphorus upon iron ; Special pro- 
perties of the separate metals; What is understood by the 
term chemical combination . . . . . .41 

Table of elementary bodies with their symbols and atomic 
weights . . 42 

III. Special Properties of the Metals. 

Alkali metals ; Metals of the alkaline earths ... 43 
Metals of the earths proper ; Sources and preparation of 

aluminium ......... 44 

Methods of obtaining aluminium at Salindere, France . 45 

F. Lauterborn's patent process for obtaining aluminium . 46 
Cowles Brothers patent process . . . . . .47 

Value of aluminium in alloys; Characteristics of aluminium 48 
Magnesium, sources, characteristics, and preparation of; 

Heavy metals ; Group divisions of .... 49 

Iron group (iron, manganese, cobalt, nickel, chromium, 
uranium) ; Iron, occurrence, characteristics, and prepara- 
tion of . . 50 

Oxidation of iron .51 



CONTENTS. VI 1 

PAOR 

Manganese, occurrence, characteristics, and preparation of; 

Cobalt, occurrence, characteristics, and uses of . .52 

Nickel, origin of its name ; Kupfernickel ; Speiss ; Nickel 
ore localities ......... 53 

Preparation and characteristics of nickel; Dr. Fleitmann's 

process for refining and toughening nickel . . . 54' 

Alloys of nickel; Coinage of ; Chromium, occurrence and 
characteristics ........ 55 

Zinc group (zinc, cadmium, indium, gallium); Zinc, occur- 
rence, characteristics, and manufacture of; Spelter, pecu- 
liar properties of . . . . . . . .56 

Cadmium, occurrence, characteristics, and uses of; Indium, 

discovery, occurrence, and characteristics of . . . 58 

Gallium, discovery, occurrence, and characteristics of; Tung- 
sten group (tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium) ; Tungsten, 
occurrence, characteristics, and uses of . . . .59 

Molybdenum and vanadium, characteristics of; Tin group 
(tin, titanium, zirconium, thorium) ; Tin, occurrence and 
table of analyses of . . . . . . . GO 

Chemically pure tin, characteristics of; Block tin ; Grain tin Gl 

Lead group (lead, thallium); Lead, characteristics, uses, and 

alloys of G2 

Thallium, occurrence, characteristics, and alloys of; Silver 
group (silver, mercury, and copper) ; Copper . . . G3 

Copper, characteristics and alloys of; Mercury (quicksilver), 
occurrence, characteristics, and amalgamations of . G4 

Silver, occurrence of ....... G5 

Silver, characteristics of; Gold group (gold and platinum) . GG 

Gold, occurrence and characteristics of . . . G7 

Platinum, occurrence, characteristics and uses of . . GS 

Bismuth group (bismuth, antimony) : Bismuth, occurrence, 
characteristics and uses of; Antimony, occurrence, and 
characteristics of ........ GO 

Arsenic, occurrence, characteristics and uses of . . . 7o 

Alloys of one metal with a non-metallic element; Sulphur, 
occurrence, characteristics and chemical affinities of . 71 



Vlll CONTENTS. 



Brittleness of metals in combination with sulphur ; Carbon, 

occurrence and characteristics of , . . .72 

Phosphorus, occurrence and characteristics of . .73 

Phosphor-bronze ; Table of the specific gravities and melt- 
ing points of the principal metals . . . 74 

Prices of metals, table of . . . . . . .75 

IV. General Properties of Alloys. 

Necessary considerations in alloying of metals . . .77 

Effects produced by mercury combined with certain metals 78 
Physical properties of alloys compared with the mean of 
their constituents . . . . . . . .79 

Melting points of alloys compared with the fusing points of 
their ingredients ; Relation between the specific gravity 
of an alloy and that of its component metals ; Dr. Ure's 
rule for finding the specific gravity of an alloy . . 80 
Table of alloys the density of which is greater than the 
mean of their constituents, and of alloys whose density is 
less than the mean of their constituents ; Tenacity of an 
alloy 81 

V. Preparation of Alloys in General. 

Utensils used in the manufacture of alloys . . .83 

Preventing the oxidation of the metals ; Disadvantages re- 
sulting from the use of borax . . . . .84 

Use of glass, carbon, and fat to protect metals from oxida- 
tion ; Preparation of alloys from costly metals ; Difficulty 
in the use of graphite crucibles 85 

Testing of graphite crucibles ; Melting the metals to form 
an alloy ; Alloy of two metals with great varying den- 
sities 86 

To stir the metallic mass while in a state of fusion ; Change 
in the nature of many alloys by repeated remeltings . 87 

Varying demands in the properties of alloys ; Metals most 
frequently used in the manufacture of alloys ... 88 



CONTENTS. IX 

PAGE 

Best methods of making experiments in the preparation of 
new alloys ; Combining metals with non-metallic elements 89 

VI. Copper Alloys. 

Difficulties in alloying with copper ..... 90 

Injurious influence of lead upon the properties of copper ; 
Influence of iron, nickel, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, 
zinc, tin, and silver upon copper . . . . .91 

Influence of an admixture of cuprous oxide ; Non-metallic 
substances found in many brands of copper, and their in- 
jurious effects . . . . . . . .92 

Behavior of copper towards admixtures . . . .93 

Metals found in commercial copper ; Generally accepted 

opinion regarding copper alloys ..... 94 

Most important of the copper alloys ; Auriferous copper 
alloys .......... 95 

Argentiferous copper alloys ; Alloys of copper with the 

Bronze 96 

VII. Brass, its Properties, Manufacture, and Uses. 

Compounds produced by the combination of copper and 
zinc ; White copper made by the inhabitants in the 
vicinity of the Euxine Sea ; Preparation of the alloy of 
copper and zinc by the Phrygians ; Aurichalcum . . 97 

Introduction of the manufacture of brass into Germany ; In 

England ; Metals generally found in commercial brass . 98 

Behavior of alloys of copper and zinc in varying propor- 
tions ; Physical properties of alloys of-copper and zinc; 
Ductility with varying proportions of zinc ... 99 

Crystalline structure of brass; Researches of S. Kalischer 
in regard to metal becoming crystalline ; Crystallization 
of zinc, of sheets of cadmium and of tin, sheet-iron and 
sheet-copper, of sheet-steel ...... 1 00 



X CONTENTS. 

PAUE 

Crystallization of four samples of sheet-brass ; sheets of 
tombac ; Bronze sheets ; Rolled lead ; Rolled fine silver 
and gold ; Preparation of a very ductile brass . .101 
Tenacity of brass ; Change in the molecular structure of 
brass; Fusing point of brass . . . . . 102 

Influence of old copper in the manufacture of brass ; Ad- 
mixture of lead in brass intended for castings ; Influence 
of iron on the hardness of brass ; Use of brass in the arts 1 03 
Mallet's table of the properties of copper-zinc alloys ; Sheet- 
brass (for the manufacture of sheets and wire) . .104 
Table of composition of excellent qualities of brass for the 
fabrication of sheet and wire . . . . . . 105 

Cast-brass; Analyses of various kinds . . . .106 

Ordinary cast-brass (potin jaune, potin gris, sterling metal) 107 
Fine cast-brass ; Hamilton's metal, mosaic gold ; Chrysorin 108 
French cast-brass for fine castings ; Table of the composi- 
tions of metals used by French manufacturers ; Bristol 

brass (Prince's metal) . 109 

Malleable brass, Muntz metal, yellow metal, etc. . .110 
Macht's yellow metal; Bobierre's metal ; Aich's metal . Ill 
Sterro-metal ; Sterro-metal from Rosthorn's factory in Lower 
Austria . . . . . . . . .112 

English sterro-metal (Gedge's alloy for sheathing for ves- 
sels) ; Results of a sterro-metal tested by Baron de Ros- 

thorn 113 

Physical properties of alloys affected by their mode of manu- 
facture . . . . . . . . . .114 

VIII. Manufacture of Brass. 

Early methods . . . . . . . ..115 

Manufacture of brass according to the old method with the 

use of zinciferous ores . . . . . . .116 

Manufacture of brass by fusing the metals together ; Failure 

to effect the fusion of the metals directly in furnaces . 117 
Coke furnace for crucibles, illustrated and described . .118 

Brass furnace for crucibles, illustrated and described . . 120 



CONTEXTS. XI 



XL Red Brass. 

Use of red brass in articles to be gilded 



Content of copper in red brass ; Compos 

table of ..... 

Compositions of imitation bronzes 
Mannheim gold or similor ; Chrysochalk 

Chrysorin ..... 
Pinchbeck; Oreide (French gold) 
Talmi or talmi gold .... 
Tissier's metal ..... 

Touniay's metal .... 



ition of tombac, 



(gold-copper) 



P,\QE 



Furnace to prevent too rapid cooling of the moulds, illus- 
trated and described . . . . . . .121 

Arrangement of furnaces for the use of coal . . . 122 

Construction of furnaces in which the fusion of the brass is 
effected directly upon the hearth . . . . .123 

IX. Casting of Brass. 
Casting of ingots 126 

Casting articles to be subsequently turned or worked with a 

file 127 

Graphite crucibles for remelting brass ; Moulds for casting 

articles of brass ; Casting of plate-brass . . . . 1 28 

Failure in the use of iron moulds ; Use of loam moulds ; 

Preparation of granite moulds . . . 1 29 

Preparation of sheet-brass from plate-brass . . .130 

Dutch metal ; Effect of the rolling process upon brass ; 

Treatment of sheet-brass after passing through the rolls ; 

Annealing the brass-sheets . . . . . .131 

X. Cleansing or Pickling of Brass. 

Composition of the pickling fluid . . . . .132 

Use of nitrous acid in producing beautiful shades of color; 
To impart a dull lustreless surface to brass . . .133 



134 

135 
136 



137 

138 
189 
140 

I il 



XI 1 CONTENTS. 



XII. White Metal. 



PAGE 



Birmingham platinum . . . . . . .142 

Sorel's alloy 143 

XIII. Imitation Gold Alloys. 

Dutch gold or leaf metal ....... 144 

Alloys for the preparation of green leaf-metal . . .145 

XIV. Bronze Powders. 

Coloring of the powders . . . . . . . 146 

Preparation of bronze powders from the waste in metal-leaf 

factories . . . . . . . . .147 

Table of compositions of alloys for some colors; Brocade . 148 

Table of the properties of alloys of copper and zinc . . 149 
List of authorities ; Note on the preceding table by Prof. 

Robt. H. Thurston 158 

XY. Bronze in General. 

Principal constituent of bronze . . . . . .161 

Substances generally found in commercial bronze other than 

copper and tin .162 

Influence of a content of zinc upon bronze ; Injurious effect 
of an admixture of lead . . . . . .163 

Effect of a content of iron on bronze ; Of an admixture of 

nickel 164 

Effect of other admixtures ; Colors of alloys . . .165 

Ductility of alloys ; Strength and hardness of bronzes . 166 
Forging of alloys ; Tempering of bronzes . . . .167 

Density, hardness, and power of resistance against cracking ; 
Table of the density of gun-metal . . . . .168 

Table of melting points of bronze compositions ; Contrac- 
tion of castings in solidifying . . . . . .169 

Difficulty of obtaining perfect castings increased by chemical 
behavior of the alloys towards oxygen . . . .170 



CONTENTS. XI 11 

PAGE 

Best preventive against the absorption of oxygen ; Fusing 
the metals . . . 171 

Injurious effects of badly constructed furnaces ; Cooling of 
the melted mass . . . . . . . .172 

Behavior of the solidified alloys towards the atmosphere . 173 

XVI. Melting and Casting of Bronze;. 

Difficulties occurring in practice of casting . . . 1 73 

Influence of the temperature of the fused metal upon the 
quality of the casting ; Preparation of large quantities of 
bronze . . . . . . . . . .174 

Reverberatory furnace illustrated and described . < % . 175 
Furnace especially adapted for melting a large quantity of 
bronze, illustrated and described . . . . .177 

The different kinds of bronze; Bronzes of pre-historic times 179 

XVII. Ordnance or Gun-Metal. 

Properties demanded from a good gun- metal . . .181 
Content of tin in bronze suitable for ordnance . . .182 

Principal requisite of a good ordnance bronze; "Dead- 
head" or " sullage-piece ;" Melting of old cannon . . 183 
Temperature for casting ordnance-bronze ; Cooling off' . 184 
Steel-bronze ; Table of composition of ordnance-bronze of 
various times and different countries . . . .185 



XVIII. Bell-Metal. 

Principal requisite of good bell-metal 
Melting and easting of bell-metal .... 
Chinese tam-tams or gongs ..... 
Table of the composition of some bell-metals; Table of the. 

composition of alloys for small bells 
Algiers metal (metal d' Alger) ; Silver bell-metal 

B 



186 

187 
188 

180 
190 



XIV CONTENTS. 



XIX. Bkonzes for Various Purposes. 



PAGE 

191 
192 
193 



Variations in the properties of bronze 

Medal and coin-bronze ...... 

Ormolu ......... 

Email cloisonne ; Actual ormolu ; Bronze for small castings 

Gold-bronze ........ 194 

Bronze to be gilded . . . . . . . .195 

Bronze which can be rolled ; Machine-bronze ; Alloys for 
bearings . . . . . . . . .196 

Table of the composition of a few important alloys . . 197 
Table of metals for bearings ; Table of compositions of ma- 
chine metals for various purposes . . . . .198 

Bronze for articles exposed to shocks and very great friction ; 
Bronze for valve-balls and other constituent parts to which 
other parts are to be soldered with hard solder ; Bronze 
resisting the action of the air ; A beautiful bronze ; Chinese 
bronzes . . . . . . . . . .199 

Alloys in imitation of Chinese bronze . . . . 200 

Japanese bronzes ; Old Peruvian bronze .... 201 

Turkish bronze ; An antique bronze . . . . . 202 

XX. Speculum Metal. 

Requirements of good speculum metal .... 202 
Table of compositions of some alloys for speculum metal . 203 

XXI. Phosphor-Bronze. 

The nature of phosphor-bronze ; The mode of action of the 
phosphorus ; To remove the cuprous oxide found in solu- 
tion 204 

Discovery of the valuable properties of phosphor-bronze by 
Montefiori, Levi, and Kiinzel ; Action of the phosphorus 
in the alloy 205 

Copper- phosphide .206 

Phosphide of tin ; Chief properties of phosphor-bronze . 207 



CONTENTS. XV 

PAGE 

Analyses of a few phosphor-bronzes; Table of Kirkaldy's 
figures for tenacity and ductility of phosphor-bronze wire 208 

Ultimate resistance and clastic limit of east phosphor-bronze ; 

Thurston's classification of phosphor-bronzes . . . 209 

Bronze for telephone lines ; Researches of Van der Yen and 
Van Eyndhoven and their practical results . . .210 

XXII. Statuary Bronze. 

Composition of statuary bronzes . . . . .211 

Table of a series of alloys of different colors suitable for 
statuary bronze . . . . . . . .213 

Table of the composition of a few celebrated statues ; Melt- 
ing and casting of statuary bi onze ..... 214 

Table of the mechanical and physical properties of 140 dif- 
ferent alloys of copper and tin . . . . .215 

List of authorities for foregoing table ; Note on the table . 226 
Tensile strength of copper ...... 228 

XXIII. Nickel Alloys. 

Nickel and copper ; Berthier's alloy ..... 229 
Nickel, copper, and zinc alloys : German silver; Obtaining 

nickel from ores ........ 230 

Chinese packfong 231 

Summary of the properties of nickel alloys . . . 232 

Difficulties in manipulating German silver . . . . 233 

German silver or argentan . ...... 284 

Table of analyses of different kinds of German silver . . 235 

XXIV Manufacture of German Silver ox a 
large scale. 

Requisite purity of the metals ...... 287 

German pro ........ 289 

English process . . . . . . . .242 

Alfenide, Argiroide, and allied alloys .... 244 

Alfenide; Toncas'e alloy ; Trabuk'a substitute for German 

silver . . . . . . . . 24S 



XVI CONTENTS. 

XXV. Alloys of Tin, with little Copper and 
Additions of Antimony, etc. 

Tin in a pure state ; Effect on tin of various metals . . 246 

Most important alloys of tin . . . . . .247 

White metals ; Use of white metals for bearings . . 248 

White metals, some of the characteristics of . . .249 
White metals for bearings, table of; Babbitt's anti-attrition 

metal 251 

Kingston's metal ; Fenton's alloy for axle-boxes for locomo- 
tives and wagons ........ 252 

Dewrance's patent locomotive bearing ; Alloy for anti-fric- 
tion brasses ; Alloy for metal stopcocks which deposits no 
verdigris; English white metal; A composition of white 
metal for machines recommended by Jacoby ; Hoyle's 
patent alloy for pivot-bearings ; Roose's. white metal . 253 

XXVI. Alloys of Copper with other Metals. 

Cupro-manganese ; Characteristics of the alloys of copper 
with manganese ........ 254 

Process of preparing these alloys ..... 255 

Composition of alloys of cupro-manganese especially valu- 
able for technical purposes . . . . . . 256 

Alloys of copper and iron ; Of copper and lead . .257 

Alloys of copper and arsenic ; Of copper and cobalt . . 258 

Copper and silicon; Silicon bronze; Weiller's alloy ; Action 
of silicon upon copper; The qualities which recommend 
silicon bronze . . . . . . . .259 

New type of telegraph wire possessing high tensile strength, 
largely used for telephone lines at Prague, Trieste, and 
other European cities .260 

XXVII. Alloys of Aluminium and Copper. 

Behavior of aluminium towards the other metals . .261 

Aluminium bronze ........ 262 

Characteristics of aluminium bronze .... 263 



CONTENTS. XVII 

PAOR 

To obviate shrinkage in casting of aluminium bronze; To 
prevent oxidation ........ 264 

Forging and rolling of aluminium bronze; Examples of 
rolling given by the Cowles Electric Smelting and Alum- 
inium Company ........ 265 

Superiority of aluminium bronze ; Table of results obtained 
with pieces of the Cowles Company Alloys . . .266 

Tests of aluminium bronze at the Washington Navy Yard ; 
Views of Thurston ; Useful alloys made by mixing alum- 
inium bronze with various proportions of nickel ; Tests of 
Kirkaldy 2G7 

Alloys of the Webster Crown Metal Company; Webster's 
directions for preparing these alloys .... 268 

Brazing aluminium bronze ; Soldering; Recommendations 
of Mierzinski 269 

Hard solder for aluminium bronze ; Middling hard ; Soft ; 
Alloy of aluminium and chromium ; Of aluminium and 
tin; Of aluminium and iron ; Mitis castings . . . 270 

XXVIII. Tin Alloys. 

Alloys of tin and lead ; Table of densities of alloys of tin 
and lead 272 

Characteristics of some of these alloys ; Fahlun brilliants ; 
Table of melting points of alloys of tin and lead . . 273 

Alloys for baths used in tempering and heating steel articles 274 

XXIX. Britannia Metal. 

Composition of the alio} generally known as Britannia metal; 
Action of the Pewterer's Company in England in 17 72 in 
regulating (he quality of pewter wares .... 275 

Characteristics of Britannia metal of various compositions . 276 

Table of the composition of several varieties of Britannia 

metal 277 

Specific gravity of Britannia metals; Preparation of Britan- 
nia metal ......... 278 

u* 



XV111 CONTEXTS. 

PAGE 

Casting articles of Britannia metal, including practical 
details 279 

Preparation of moulds for casting articles of Britannia metal 
in one piece ; To obtain castings of the right condition . 280 

Directions for smoothing the inside of articles cast in one 
piece ; Treatment of the alloy for articles to be made by 
stamping or other mechanical process ; Polishing cast or 
stamped Britannia metal ; Silvering articles of Britannia 
metal 281 

Biddery metal ; Composition of genuine Indian Biddery 
metal ; Dr. Hamilton's description of the operation of 
melting the composition and finishing the articles ; Indian 
artist's process of beautifying the articles . . . 282 

Composition of Ashberry metal ; Composition of Minofor 
metal ; Uses of these metals 283 

Composition of English metal 284 

XXX. Lead Alloys. 

Uses of lead in its pure state ; Influence of copper on lead ; 
Influence of a content of arsenic, antimony, and tin on 
lead ; Difficulty of alloying zinc and iron with lead ; Most 
important alloys of lead ; Type-metal, requisites of . 284 

Characteristics of alloys of lead and antimony . . . 285 

Table of some alloys suitable for type-metal ; Manufacture 
of the types from the alloy 286 

Variations in type-founding; Composition of plates for en- 
graving music; Ehrhardt's type-metal; Casting of type- 
metal for statuettes and decorated articles . . .287 

Alloy for keys of flutes and similar parts of instruments ; 
Shot-metal ; Precautions to be observed in preparing the 
alloy 288 

Proportion of arsenic in preparing alloys for shot ; Cause of 
the variation in proportions . . • . . . 289 

Influence of a content of arsenic in shot- metal ; Variations 
in the compositions of shot-metal; Casting of shot; 
Origin of the old method of casting shot . . . 29Q 



CONTEXTS. XIX 



p.uirc 



Treatment of the melted lead at the top of the tower; De- 
scription of the colanders ; Treatment of the water for 
the reception of the lead drops; To prevent the shot, 
when taken from the water, from losing its metallic ap- 
pearance by oxidation . . . . . . .291 

Formation of shot by centrifugal power; David Smith's 
machine for manufacturing shot, illustrated and described 292 

Sorting the shot .294 

Polishing and darkening the finished shot; Present mode of 
sorting the shot ; Preparation of large shot ; Alloys of 
lead and iron . . . . . . . . .295 

Alloys of lead and other metals 296 

XXXI. Cadmium Alloys. 

Effects produced upon metals by cadmium ; Alloys of cad- 
mium and silver; General contents of alloys of cadmium 297 

Lipowitz's alloy ; Use of, in soldering .... 298 

Composition of cadmium alloys of different melting points; 
Very fusible alloy, melting point, 150°; Wood's alloy or 
metal; Cadmium alloy ....... 299 

Cadmium alloy, melting point, 300°; Cliche" metal, character- 
istics of; Hauer's table of melting points of fusible alloys 
relative to their composition ..... 300 

Remelting of cadmium alloys without their melting points 
undergoing any sensible change ; Liquating of the original 
homogeneous alloy and means of prevention . . . 801 

XXXII. Bismuth Alloys. 

Effect of bismuth in lowering the melting points of metals; 
Principal use of bismuth alloys ; Behavior of bismuth to- 
wards other metals as given by Guettier .... 301 

Alloys of bismuth and copper, of bismuth and zinc, of bis- 
muth and tin 302 

Alloys of bismuth and lead, of bismuth and iron, of bismuth 
with antimonv ........ .'J 1 ';: 



XX CONTENTS. 



PAGE 



Composition and uses of cliche metal ; Alloy for filling out 
defective places in metallic castings ; Alloys of bismuth, 
tin, and lead ; Newton's metal; Rose's alloys ; Prepara- 
tion of safety- plates on steam boilers . . . .304 

Table of the composition of some alloys said to melt at cer- 
tain steam pressures ; Onion's fusible alloy ; Darcet's 
fusible alloys 305 

Bismuth alloys for delicate castings ; Bismuth alloy for ce- 
menting glass • . . . . . . . . 306 

Alloy for fastening the metal parts upon glass lamps ; 
Parkes and Martin's table of the points of fusion of the 
fusible combinations of bismuth, lead, and tin ; Their use 
as baths for tempering steel tools ..... 307 

Alloys of lead and bismuth for tempering baths ; Alloys of 
bismuth and tin; Cutlanego; New fusible alloy; Bis- 
muth-bronze ; Webster's statement of its composition 
and qualities ......... 308 

XXXIII. Silver Alloys. 

Characteristics of pure silver . 309 

Uses of silver alloys; Alloys of silver and aluminium . 310 
Tiers-argent (one-third silver) ; Alloys of silver and zinc . 311 
Alloys for coinage ; Alloys of silver, copper, and nickel ; 
Argent-Ruolz, composition of; C. IX Abel's patented 
alloys containing silver and nickel . . . . .312 

Purification of commercial nickel ; Treatment of nickel- 
speiss .......... 314 

Use of manganese in preparing an alloy to contain the high- 
est content of silver and the lowest of copper ; Production 
of an alloy of phosphorus and copper . . . .315 

Preparation of the phosphide of copper ; Alloys of silver, 

copper, nickel, and zinc ; Mousset's silver alloy . .316 

Alloys for Swiss fractional coins ; Argent-Ruolz ; Alloys 
which can be rolled into sheets or drawn into wire ; Alloys 
of silver and arsenic . . . . . . .317 



CONTEXTS. XXI 

PAflE 

Alloys of silver, copper, and cadmium ; Allocs of silver 
with cobalt and chromium ; Alloys of silver and copper . 318 

Effect of copper on silver ; Liquation of alloys of copper 
and silver ; Table of the composition of silver coins of 
various countries . . . . . . . .319 

Table of the fineness of silver used in the manufacture of 
silver- ware . . . . . . . . .320 

To prevent blow-holes in silver castings; Blanching of the 
finished articles of cast-silver ; Gray silver (Japanese 
silver) 321 

Preparation of mokum ; Imitation silver alloys; Warne's 
metal; Minargent; Composition of a beautiful white 
alloy closely resembling silver ; Delalot's alloy . . 322 

Tournu-Leonard's alloy ; Clark's patent alloy ; Pirseh-Bau- 

doin's alloy 323 

XXXIV. Gold Alloys. 

Universal use of gold from earliest periods down to present 
time . . : . . . . . .324 

Gold and copper alloys ; Gold and silver alloys . . .325 

Characteristics of gold alloyed with iron ; Behavior of lead 
towards gold ; Result of arsenic or antimony alloyed with 
gold; Alloys of gold and palladium .... 326 

Alloy of aluminium and gold (Niirnberg gold) ; Effect of 
an addition of cadmium to an alloy of gold and silver . 327 

XXXV. Preparation ok Gold Alloys. 

Moulds used in the manufacture of gold articles; Casting of 
gold for coinage . . . . . . . .327 

Casting of ingots to be used for the preparation of gold 
plates; Melting of the metals constituting the alloys . 828 

Wind-furnace used in the manufacture of goldware, illus- 
trated and described ....... 829 



XX11 CONTENTS. 



PAGE 



Flux to be used in producing tough gold ; Care necessary to 
be taken in remelting scrap gold ..... 330 

Unit for expressing the fineness of gold alloys ; Table for 
the conversion of carats and grains into thousandths . 331 

XXXVI. Use of Gold Alloys. 

Leonis wires ; Standard gold ; Abrasion of sovereigns allowed 
by the English government ; Table of the legal standards 
of gold in various countries . . .. .. .. . 332 

Legal standards of gold alloys for jewelry in England, 

France, and Germany 333 

Table of gold alloys legally fixed by the various govern- 
ments ; Gold alloys which can be legally used in various 
countries; Pforzheim goldware . .. .. . . 334 

Table of the proportions of various metals incorporated in 
the gold alloys used by jewelers ; Colored gold ; Table of 
the composition of the alloys most frequently used with 
their specific colors . . . .''"". . . 335 

Characteristics of the alloys containing cadmium, and the 
manner of preparing them ; Preparation of gold alloys by 
the galvanic process 336 

To impart to the finished gold articles a color approaching 
that of chemically pure gold . . . . . .337 

XXXVII. Alloys of Platinum and Platinum Metals. 

Uses of platinum alloys . . . . . . . 337 

Platinum alloys used for vessels in manufactories of sulphuric 
acid and other chemical products ; Platinum furnace, de- 
scription of 338 

Preparation of platinum alloys on a small scale ; Preparing 
alloys of platinum with base metals . . . .339 

Alloys of platinum and iridium; Alloys of platinum and 
gold 340 

Alloys of platinum and silver ; Alloys of platinum, gold, 
silver, and palladium . . . . . . .341 



CONTENTS. XX111 

pa<;e 

Platinor ; Platinum bronze ...... 342 

Table of the composition of some varieties of platinum 
bronze ; Alloys of platinum with the base metals . . 343 

Alloys of platinum and copper ; Golden-yellow alloys of 
platinum and copper ; Composition of alloys used in the 
manufacture of ornaments . . . . . .344 

Cooper's gold ; Composition of alloys suitable for ornaments 
on account of their gold appearance ; Injurious results of 
an admixture of iron in the alloys ..... 345 

Cooper's mirror metal; Cooper's pen metal; Palladium 
alloys 346 

Alloys of palladium and silver; Palladium bearing metal; 
Phosphor-iridium ; John Holland's process for making 
points for Maekinnon stylographic pen . . . ' . 347 

Remarkable properties of phosphor-iridium ; Its combina- 
tions with other metals . . . . . . .348 



XXXVIIL Alloys of Mercury and other Metals 
or Amalgams. 

Characteristics of mercury ; Study of the behavior of 
metals towards each other through amalgams ; Crystalli- 
zation of many amalgams ...... 349 

Importance of amalgams for gilding and silvering ; Affinity 
of metals for mercury ; Gold amalgam ; Gaining gold from 
auriferous sand . . . . . . . .350 

Preparation of an amalgam suitable for fire-gilding . .351 

Amalgam of silver; Preparation of pulverulent silver; 

Preparation of silver amalgam without the use of heat . 852 

Fire-gilding; Preparation of a pure amalgam; Articles of 
metal to which lire-gilding is applicable; Preparing the 
articles to be fire-gilded 853 

Mode of applying the amalgam; Supplying defective places 
in the articles with amalgam; Occasional necessity of re- 
peating the operation ....... :!."> t 



XXIV CONTENTS. 



PAGE 



Amalgams of the platinum metals ; Amalgam of copper ; 
Valuable properties of amalgam of copper ; Application 
of copper amalgam for cementing metal .... 355 

Preparation of amalgam of copper ; Amalgam solder for low 
temperatures ; Imitation of gold suitable for cheap 
jewelry . . . . . . . . . . 356 

Dronier's malleable bronze ; Amalgam of tin ; Amalgam of 
tin for filling teeth ; Amalgams for mirrors and looking- 
glasses .........'. 357 

Preparation of the glasjs and process of applying the mer- 
cury ; Applying the amalgam to curved glass plates . . 358 

Amalgam for electric machines ; Amalgam for tinning ; 

Amalgam of zinc ........ 359 

Amalgam of cadmium ; Preparation of the actual cadmium 
amalgam ; Characteristics of pure cadmium amalgam . 360 

Amalgams for filling teeth ; Evans's metallic cement . .361 

Amalgams of the fusible alloys ; Amalgam of Lipowitz's 
metal ; Valuable properties of Lipowitz's alloy for obtain- 
ing impressions of objects of natural history, and for the 
manufacture of small statuettes . . . . .362 

Amalgam of iron ; Preparation of the amalgam ; Character- 
istics of pure amalgam of iron ; Gilding of iron articles . 363 

Amalgam of bismuth ; Amalgams for silvering glass globes . 364 

Amalgam of bismuth for anatomical preparations ; Amalgam 

of sodium ; Use of in preparing other amalgams . . 365 

Preparation of sodium amalgam ; Amalgam of ammonium ; 

Mackenzie's amalgam; Other amalgams . . . 366 



XXXIX. Miscellaneous Alloys. 

Mixture especially adapted for serving as a protective cover 
in remelting metallic alloys ; Addition of iron to copper 
and zinc alloys .367 

Alloys for speculum metal ; Alloy for spoons ; Alloy resem- 
bling German silver ; Alloy resembling silver ; Non-qxidi- 
zable alloy ; Calin (Chinese lining for tea chests) . 368 



CONTEXTS. XXV 

PAGE 

Alloy for moulds for pressed glass ; New method of prepar- 
ing alloys ; Alloys of indium and gallium ; Alloys pre- 
pared by L. de Boisbaudfan ...... 3G9 

Platinoid ; Table of the resistance of platinoid wire at dif- 
ferent temperatures . . . . . . .3 70 

Superiority of platinoid wire ; Steel composition ; Malleable 
ferro-cobalt and ferro-niekel . . . . . .371 

Bronze resisting acids, Debie's receipt . . . .372 

Zinc-iron alloy ; An alloy which expands on cooling ; 

Spence's metal . . . . . . . .373 

Valuable services of Spence's metal in the laboratory and 
for making castings; Lutecine or Paris metal ; Alloys for 
small patterns in foundries ; Alloys for calico-printing 
rollers; Hauvel's composition for the rollers . . 374 

Composition of an English roller found by Rendel ; Analyses 
by J. Depierre and P. Spiral of French, English, and 
German scrapers for removing the surplus of colors from 
the rollers ; Tables of the physical properties and chemical 
compositions of rollers . . . . . . .375 

Alloy for silvering ; Operation of silvering . . . 377 

Robertson alloy for filling teeth ; American sleigh-bells . 378 

Alloy for casting small articles ; Arnold's iron alloy ; Lemar- 
quand's non-oxidizable alloy; Marlie's non-oxidizable 
alloy . . • . . . . . . . .379 

XL. Soldering — Solders in General. 

Process of soldering; Variety of solders; Characteristics of 

hard and soft solders ....... 380 

Conditions to be observed in all soldering processes ; Auto- 
genous soldering . . . . . . . . .".si 

Binding the work in hard soldering; Soft soldering of thick 
work 382 



XXVI CONTENTS. 



XLI. Soft Solders. 



PAGE 



Principal uses of soft solders ...... 382 

Soft soldering with pure tin ; Table of the compositions of 
some soft solders with their points of fusion . .' . 383 

Solders for plumber's work, for lead and tin-pipes, for 
Britannia metal, for cast-iron and steel, for copper and 
many of its alloys ; Plumber's sealed solder; Preparation 
of soft solder ; Judging the quality of solder . . . 384 

Composition and melting point of bismuth-solder . . 385 

XLII. Hard Solders. 

Division of hard solders ....... 385 

Compositions of brass-solders ; Effect of tin on solders ; To 

secure uniformity of composition in solders . . . 386 

Preparation of the brass for the manufacture of solders ; 

Manufacture of the alloy . . . . . .387 

Table of the centesimal composition of various tested 

solders . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 

Table of the proportions of sheet-brass and zinc to form the 

solders; Prechtl's brass-solders ..... 389 
Argentan solder; Uses and centesimal composition of; 

Readily fusible argentan-solder ..... 390 
Less fusible argentan-solder especially adapted for iron and 

steel 391 

Characteristics of argentan-solder ..... 392 

XLIII. Solders Containing Precious Metals. 

Principal use of solders containing precious metals . .392 
Ordinary hard silver-solder ; Brass silver-solder ; Soft silver- 
solders ; Hard silver-solders ; Soft silver-solder for after 
soldering; Soft silver-solder, quick running and brittle . 393 
Silver- solder for cast-irpn ; Silver-solder for steel; Gold- 
solders .......... 394 



CONTENTS. X X V 1 1 



Table of the composition of some gold-solders in general 
use ; Solder for enamelled work ; Refractory solder ; 
More readily fusible solder ; Fine gold-solder . . 395 

Aluminium-solder . . . . ... . . 396 



XLVI. Treatment of the Various Solders in 
Soldering and Soldering Fluids. 

Special treatment of the surfaces to be soldered ; Use of 
dilute mineral acids for pickling the surfaces . . . 397 

Preparation of the soldering fluid ; Use of ammonia for 
brass articles ; Fluxes for coarser work ; Preparation of 
soldering fat ; Substances used for hard soldering . , . 398 

Hard soldering fluid ; Suitable flux in hard soldering . . 399 



APPENDIX. 
Coloring of Alloys. 

Use of lacquers ; Coloring of lacquers ; Graham's table of 
lacquers ......... 401 

Coating articles of copper or brass ; Patina color of copper 
and bronze articles . . . . . . .402 

To obtain a coating similar to genuine patina ; To produce a 
patina-like deposit upon a statue ..... 403 

Coating articles of brass with a green patina ; Methods of 

giving an agreeable brown patina to medals . . .404 

Brown coloration of copper articles ; To brown gun-barrels 405 
Colorations upon French bronze figures .... 406 

Table of Graham's bronzing liquids ..... 407 

Liquids for bronzing brass by simple immersion . . . 408 

For bronzing copper and zinc by simple immersion ; To 
provide articles of brass or bronze with a lustrous gray or 
black coating ........ 409 



XX VI 11 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

To produce beautiful iridescent coatings upon metals ; Color- 
ing of brass buttons . . . . . • . .410 

Producing a beautiful gold color upon brass articles . .411 

Silver color upon brass ; Browning liquid for copper ; Eber- 
mayer's directions for coloring brass . . . .412 

Coloring of soft solders . . . . . . - . .413 

Index 415 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

A PRACTICAL GUIDE 



MANUFACTURE OF ALL KINDS OF ALLOYS, AMALGAMS, 
SOLDERS, ETC. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The term alloy, in its most general acceptation, means 
the mutual combination of two or more metals. When 
one of the metals, however, entering into combination is 
mercury, the result is not usually termed an alloy, but 
an amalgam. At the present time the belief prevails — 
we may even say it is universal — that alloys are not 
always mere mechanical mixtures of different metals, 
but are constituted in accordance with the laws of defi- 
nite chemical combination. 

Theearliest historical data in reference to the develop- 
ment of the art of preparing, so to say, new metals by 
melting together several metals are very meagre, and 
though it appears from several passages in sacred as well 
as profane history that no metallic compound was in 
more general use with the ancients than brass, the mode 
3 



26 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of its manufacture is left in obscurity by the histori- 
ographers of subsequent ages. Pliny says that a flour- 
ishing trade in brass was carried on in Rome shortly 
after the founding of that city, and that Numa, the 
immediate successor of Romulus, formed all the workers 
in this alloy into a kind of community. 

The Greeks possessed considerable knowledge in the 
art of mixing metals, and knew how to prepare alloys 
with special properties which rendered them suitable for 
particular purposes. They understood, for instance, the 
preparation of alloys which were especially hard, or 
well adapted for casting. The oldest alloys we know 
of always contain copper, which is, no doubt, due to the 
fact that this metal occurs native in many places, and is 
also readily reduced from its ores. Next to alloys con- 
taining copper, we find those of the noble metals — silver 
and gold — with a base metal, generally copper. 

It is not difficult to explain why the noble metals 
were alloyed in early times with other metals. On 
the one hand, these metals were much more expen- 
sive than at the present time, and, being subject to con- 
siderable wear on account of their softness, it was but 
natural that some one, recognizing the great similarity 
between the heavy metals as regards ductility, weight, 
and lustre, should have instituted experiments in order 
to see how these metals would behave towards each 
other when melted together. Experience then showed 
that by melting together, for instance, a certain quantity 
of silver with copper, the properties of silver, especially 
its white color, were retained, while the hardness and 



INTRODUCTION. 27 

power of resistance of the alloy were considerably in- 
creased. 

There can scarcely be any doubt that the alloys 
of copper with tin, generally called bronze, were the 
earliest mixtures of metals, because zinc, in a metallic 
state, has only been known at a later period, while tin 
was known in the earliest historic times. Next in his- 
torical order follow the alloys of the noble metals with 
each other and with copper. Mercury, which occurs 
free in nature, was also known to the ancients, and its 
metallic properties recognized by them, as is evident 
from the name — hydrargyria (water-silver) — by which 
it was designated. It is certain that compounds of it, 
which, at the present time, are designated as amalgams, 
w r ere used by the Greeks and Arabians. From what 
has been said, it would seem likely that the ancients 
understood the art of fire-gilding metallic articles with 
the assistance of gold amalgam ; and, in fact, some old 
statues which had evidently been gilded have been 
found — the best example of it being the statue of the 
Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, which now stands in 
front of the capitol at Home. 

Up to the commencement of the reign of Charlemagne, 
when the development of the technical arts commenced 
in Europe, the only mixtures of metals were the alloys 
of copper, tin, zinc, silver, and gold, and some amal- 
gams. To prepare other alloys a greater knowledge 
of chemistry was required than that possessed by the 
early races of mankind. The development of chemis- 
try was principally due to the Arabs, and, especially 
to those settled in Spain— the Moors — who were well 



28 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

learned in the chemical sciences and in all branches of 
natural history, and probably well aware of many 
mixtures of metals still used at the present time. At 
later periods it was alchemy, the vague hallucination of 
making gold from lead and other base metals, which 
prompted men to undertake investigations fruitful of 
chemical deductions and promotive of a knowledge of 
the metals. Many an alchemist found in his crucible 
alloys, which he threw away, unsatisfied, because they 
did not possess the properties of the desired gold, but 
which at the present time are profitably used. It may 
be said without exaggeration that modern chemistry 
would not have reached such a degree of excellence if it 
were not for the great abundance of facts collected by 
the alchemist to be marshalled into a science hereafter. 

From what has been said, it will be seen that at the 
time when chemistry as a science did not exist, consider- 
able was known in regard to alloys, and we find that in 
the middle ages a large number of mixtures of metals 
were used in the different arts and industries. The pre- 
paration of the alloys, however, was always effected in a 
very crude manner, but little being known about the 
definite proportions in which the metals had to be melted 
together in order to obtain alloys of determined proper- 
ties. The only exception to this were the alloys obtained 
by the direct melting together of the pure metals, for 
instance, those prepared from the noble metals and cop- 
per. As is well known, everything relating to coinage 
had reached a considerable degree of excellence in the 
middle ages, and the fineness of a mixture of metals 



INTRODUCTION; '29 

which was to bo used for coinage could be determined 
with considerable accuracy. 

The art of preparing alloys, however, became only a 
branch of chemistry when the latter, somewhat more 
than a century ago, entered the ranks of the sciences. 
The chemists gradually investigated all the bodies occur- 
ring in nature, and showed how from minerals a series 
of metals could be gained which were not known up to 
that time. These metals were examined in regard to 
their intrinsic properties and their behavior towards each 
other, and it was observed that a great number of their 
mixtures possessed properties which made them suitable 
for technical purposes. 

Of the sixty-four elementary or simple bodies at 
present recognized, no less than fifty belong to the class 
of metals. Several of these are of recent discovery, 
and are, as yet, imperfectly known. Nevertheless, 
there is but a small number of them which cannot be 
used for the preparation of alloys. 

Though it may be said that our knowledge of chem- 
istry has advanced so far that at present all metals of 
importance in the arts and industries are known, our 
knowledge of the metals themselves cannot be consid- 
ered complete, as, during the las! twenty years, several 
new metals have been discovered which may become of 
a certain importance in the preparation of alloys. The 
fact that these metals are very rare at the present time, 
and that their preparation is connected with enormous 
expense, is not adverse to this conjecture, since many 
examples could be enumerated of bodies which a short 

time ago were considered expensive rarities, but arc now 



30 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

produced on a large scale, and used for industrial pur- 
poses. 

From what has been said in the preceding, the science 
of metallic alloys must be considered as a branch of 
knowledge which, though brought to a high degree of 
perfection, is by no means complete. It rather opens a 
wide field for the activity of the chemist, and the inven- 
tion of a new alloy belongs to the most important and 
valuable discoveries, since nearly every alloy possesses 
certain specific properties which make its application to 
many branches of industries especially valuable. 



II. 



PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF 
METALS. 

Befoee proceeding with the description of the manu- 
facture of alloys, it will be necessary to give a general 
review of the physical and chemical properties of the 
metals ; such knowledge of the elements to be alloyed 
being required in order to proceed according to a deter- 
mined plan, as otherwise satisfactory results could only 
be obtained by a happy accident. 

Most of our readers, no doubt, possess this informa- 
tion, but memory might fail some of them, and some 
essentia], though elementary, details may escape others. 
Nevertheless, a book like this should be complete, and 
include all the rudiments absolutely necessary for the 



RELATIONS OF METALS. 31 

understanding of the subject without the trouble of 
searching for the information in other books. 

Chemists divide the elementary bodies into two large 
groups, viz., the metals and metalloids or non-metals, 
the latter term being decidedly preferable for the second 
group, as it definitely expresses the existence of an 
essential difference between these two groups of elemen- 
tary bodies. Though chemists do not by any means 
agree as to which bodies are to be termed metals and 
which non-metals, it is not difficult for our purposes to 
give certain distinctive characteristics, so that, as regards 
the metals to be considered in connection with the manu- 
facture of alloys, a sharp boundary can be drawn be- 
tween them and the non-metals in the actual sense of 
the word. 

a. Physical Relations of the Metals. 

By the term metal is, as a rule, understood in ordi- 
nary life, a body, which, besides high specific gravity, a 
characteristic color, and especially a characteristic lustre, 
shows other definite properties. It is, for instance, fre- 
quently supposed that all metals possess a high degree 
of ductility, that they are opaque, fuse only at a high 
temperature, and, on exposure to the air, undergo a slow- 
alteration or, as is the case with the so-called noble 
metals, retain their color under all circumstances. 

The properties above named undoubtedly belong to 
the metals ordinarily understood by that term and chiefly 
used in the industries. In considering, however, the 
bodies termed metals from the standpoint of the chem- 
ist, we find that many of them, which must unquestion- 



32 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ably be included in that group, show properties differing 
very much from those enumerated above. If we first 
turn to the ordinary well-known metals, we find them 
distinguished by a characteristic lustre, termed metallic 
lustre, this property being even possessed in a very high 
degree by such metals as appear entirely lustreless in 
consequence of their chemical properties (i. e., in contact 
with the air). If a lump of lead be cut across with a 
knife, the fresh surfaces show a beautiful lustre, but will 
very speedily tarnish by the lead undergoing a rapid 
alteration on exposure to the air. 

Besides high specific gravity and metallic lustre, other 
general properties are ordinarily ascribed to metals, 
prominent among which is ductility. It is, however, 
well known to every one handling metals that they 
manifest great variations in capacity of extension under 
the hammer or between rollers. Some of them, like 
gold and silver, may be obtained in exceedingly thin 
leaves, while others, like antimony and bismuth, appear 
to be perfectly unmalleable. Similar differences are 
noticeable in the tenacity of the metals ; some of them 
can be drawn out into very fine wire, while others are 
altogether destitute of ductility. 

Even the property of opacity belongs only condition- 
ally to the metals, for gold and silver are translucent in 
thin plates, the former transmitting green rays and the 
latter blue rays, though none of the other metals have 
been obtained in sufficiently thin leaves to allow of the 
transmission of liffht. 

From what has been said it will be seen that the 
properties of metals vary very much from those ordi- 



RELATIONS OF METALS. 33 

narily ascribed to them, and the same must be said in 
regard to their fusibility. While some fuse at a tem- 
perature below that of boiling water, others melt only 
at the very highest temperature, and the determination 
of the exact point is a matter of great difficulty. Cer- 
tain of them soften before actual fusion occurs, so that 
they can be hammered or welded into compact masses. 
There are, however, .some points in which all metals to 
be discussed here agree: — 

They are distinguished by great weight : lead, iron, 
gold, and platinum being representatives of those promi- 
nent in this respect. 

They are, as a rule, very ductile bodies : copper, silver, 
gold, etc., being representatives of this group. Others, 
like zinc, antimony, and bismuth, show, however, a high 
degree of brittleness. 

With the exception of mercury, they are all solids at 
an ordinary temperature and become fluid only at higher 
temperatures, the degree of heat at which this takes 
place varying, however, very much. 

They are, without exception, excellent conductors of 
heat and electricity ; that is, they rapidly absorb them, 
but just as rapidly yield them up again. 

These general points quite exhaust the physical prop- 
erties of metals possessed by them in common. It re- 
mains to be remarked that they show considerable dif- 
ferences in regard to specific gravity, ductility, conduc- 
tivity, qU\, which will be referred to in speaking of the 
special properties of the metals available for alloys. 



34 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

b. Chemical Relations of the Metals. 

Chemically, the metals are distinguished by their 
ability to form combinations with the non-metallic 
elements ; the combination with the oxygen of the air 
being especially energetic. The affinity of the different 
metals for oxygen, however, varies greatly, the majority 
of the metals used in ordinary life combining with it at 
an ordinary temperature. This phenomenon can be 
readily observed on the previously-mentioned lump of 
lead. The fresh surfaces lose their lustre by the lead 
combining with the oxygen from the air, which gives 
rise to a coating of oxide. Copper, having less affinity 
for oxygen, remains bright for some time and then ac- 
quires a brown-red coloring, which is also due to the 
formation of a layer of oxide. Many other metals re- 
main bright at an ordinary temperature, and only lose 
their characteristic lustre by oxidation taking place at a 
higher temperature — this last phenomenon being, for 
instance, observed with tin and antimonial metals which 
become oxidized by heating. In ordinary language all 
metals losing their metallic lustre at an ordinary tem- 
perature or by heating are termed base metals, while the 
term noble metals is applied to those which have so 
little attraction for oxygen that they cannot be induced 
directly to unite with it even at high temperatures. 
The number of noble metals is very small in com- 
parison with that of the base metals and of those more 
frequently used ; mercury, silver, gold, and platinum 
only can be actually counted among them. 

From what has been said, it will be seen that the 



RELATIONS OF METALS. 35 

metals may be divided according to their behavior 
towards oxygen, such a division being in fact well sup- 
ported, as we will have occasion to demonstrate in the 
course of our explanations. 

In a chemical sense, the metals can be further divided 
with reference to certain physical properties into heavy 
and light metals. There is a series of metals whose 
specific gravity is so small that they float upon water, 
that of some of them being not greater than ordinarily 
exhibited by glass. Chemists term such metals light 
metals, in contradistinction to those which are distin- 
guished by great weightiness. 

The properties of the light and heavy metals allow, 
however, of an easy separation as regards their chemical 
relations, and, by taking these relations into considera- 
tion, the result will be a suitable division of the metals 
into determined groups which, together with their special 
properties, will be mentioned. 

The metals belonging to the group of light metals 
have a very small specific gravity, which does not ex- 
ceed four (the weight of a volume of water being always 
taken as a unit). These metals find but a limited appli- 
cation by themselves, most of them having such strong 
affinity for oxygen as to be very speedily converted into 
oxide on coming into contact with the air. Only two 
of them, magnesium and aluminium, form an exception 
in this respect, and are, therefore, used in the arts and 
industries, though only to a limited extent. According 
to their occurrence, these metals are divided into several 
groups, viz: alkali metals, metals of ///'• alkaline earths, 
and mefafc of thr earths 'proper. 



36 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

To the alkali metals belong potassium, sodium, and 
lithium, and a few other very rare minerals, which have 
only become known in more modern times. The two 
first-named metals occur generally in the ashes of land 
and marine plants, but, on account of their great insta- 
bility, are not employed in technics, and serve only for 
the preparation of certain seldom-used metals. Lithium 
is a very widely diffused element, being found in many 
micas, in feldspar, in the ashes of many plants, and in 
sea-water ; it has also been detected in certain meteorites. 
It is the lightest solid known, being lighter even than 
any known liquid. 

The metals of the alkaline earths have nearly the 
same properties as the alkali metals, but their affinity 
for oxygen, though very considerable, is somewhat less. 
Chemists include in- this group calcium, occurring in 
gypsum, limestone, and many other minerals; barium, 
contained in heavy spar; and strontium, the principal 
naturally-occurring compounds of which are the sul- 
phate, or coelestin, and the carbonate, or strontianite. 
Like the alkali metals, the metals of the alkaline earths 
do not find a direct application in the industries, their 
great affinity for oxygen rendering such use impossible. 

The metals of the earths proper occur in many mine- 
rals, and a large number of metals belonging to this 
group are known, but only two of them— aluminium, 
occurring in alumen, clay, feldspar, and a large number 
of other minerals, and magnesium, found in dolomite, 
etc. — have any claim to our attention on the ground of 
their technical importance. Their affinity for oxygen 
is not so energetic as that of the other metals of this 



RELATIONS OF METALS. 37 

group, since both can be kept in contact with dry air 
without entering into combination with oxygen, alumi- 
nium even retaining its lustre for a comparatively long 
time. 

All light metals have, however, the property of 
readily decomposing water, the alkali metals and metals 
of the alkaline earths effecting this at an ordinary tem- 
perature. When a piece of potassium is thrown upon 
water, a vigorous development of hydrogen immediately 
takes place. The metal melts in consequence of the 
heat liberated by the chemical process, and the developed 
hydrogen ignites. The metal combines immediately 
with the oxygen to potassium oxide, which dissolves in 
water. After the combustion of the potassium, a color- 
less globule, consisting of the melted potassium oxide, 
floats upon the surface of the water. With a peculiar 
fizzing noise this globule suddenly bursts into pieces, 
which speedily dissolve in the water to potassium 
hydroxide. 

The metals of the earths proper act less energetical ly 
on meeting with water, though they decompose it at a 
boiling heat; magnesium, for instance, when strongly 
heated in contact with air burning with the development 
of considerable light and heat. 

The heavy metals, i. c, those which are chiefly used 
in ordinary life, can, according to their chemical behav- 
ior, be brought into four well-defined groups, the group 
into which each metal is to be placed depending on its 
behavior in contact with hot water-vapor or with water 
in the presence of an acid. In reference t<> this we dis- 
tinguish the following groups : — 



38 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

1. Metals which decompose water at the ordinary 
temperature in the presence of an acid, and which pos- 
sess the further property of decomposing water at a 
higher temperature (at a red heat). To this group be- 
long iron, zinc, nickel, cobalt, chromium, cadmium, tin, 
and a few rarer metals. 

2. Metals which decompose water at the temperature 
of a red heat, but lack the property of decomposing 
water in the presence of an acid. Of the more impor- 
tant metals only antimony and tungsten belong to this 
group. 

3. Metals which are incapable of sensibly decompos- 
ing water either at a red heat or in the presence of an 
acid, and are entirely indifferent towards it at an ordi- 
nary temperature. The metals belonging to this group, 
of which bismuth, lead, copper, and mercury are repre- 
sentatives, possess, however, the property of oxidizing 
when heated red hot in contact w 7 ith air. 

4. ISoble metals are, finally, such as do not com- 
bine with oxygen when strongly heated in contact with 
air, and at a red heat remain entirely indifferent towards 
water. Silver, gold, and platinum are the most impor- 
tant of the metals belonging to this group. 

Besides the metals enumerated in the preceding 
groups there are a number of others which, according 
to their behavior, belong to one or the other. But, as 
previously mentioned, these metals are of no technical 
importance, being on account of their rarity too expen- 
sive to be used for industrial purposes. Moreover, we 
would here remark that among the enumerated metals 
are some, for instance cobalt and tungsten, whose appli- 



RELATIONS OF METALS. ,°>9 

cation in the industries is very limited, though they can 
be procured in large quantities. A more extensive 
use may, however, be found for them in the future, as 
has been the case with nickel, with which nothing could 
be done for a long time, but which is now used in large 
quantities in the preparation of very important alloys. 

Metals can be mixed by melting them together, the 
bodies obtained in this manner being termed alloys. 
An alloy may, therefore, be designated as a mixture of two 
or more metals formed by fusion. Although the majority 
of metals can be fused together in any proportions de- 
sired, so that the number of alloys can be almost in- 
creased to any extent, we find that certain metals com- 
bine with special ease in determined proportions of 
weight. Such an alloy may be considered as a chemical 
combination, while those prepared by melting together 
metals in proportions chosen at will may be viewed 
as a mixture of two liquids, for instance, of water and 
alcohol ; the greater the quantity of one constituent the 
more the mixture will show the properties of that con- 
stituent. But while this is true of many mixtures of 
metals, it would be incorrect to accept it as a fact in re- 
gard to all alloys, because in many cases a small admix- 
ture <>f one metal suffices to thrust the properties of 
another into the background. We sec, for instance, that 
certain metals possess the property of considerably hard- 
ening other soft and ductile ones, and, furthermore, thai 
certain bodies not belonging to the metals exert a still 
greater influence upon the properties of a metal. It 
will, therefore, be necessary briefly to consider these 
bodies. 



40 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, and arsenic are the 
most prominent of the non-metallic bodies, which are 
capable of changing to a considerable degree the prop- 
erties of a metal, and these bodies being much used for 
that purpose in the industry, we will have to consider 
their combinations with the metals, though they do not 
belong to the actual alloys. 

The exceedingly great influence exerted by these 
bodies upon the properties of metals, even if admixed 
only in very small quantities, is best shown by the be- 
havior of iron. 

Pure iron, such as is used for piano strings or good 
shoe nails, is a metal of great hardness and extraor- 
dinary tenacity, which can only be fused at the highest 
temperature capable of being produced in our furnaces. 
It contains at the utmost one-half per cent, of foreign 
substances, consisting of varying quantities of manga- 
nese, silicium, and carbon. But iron containing a quan- 
tity of foreign substances amounting to 1J per cent., of 
which carbon constitutes the greater portion, shows, 
however, entirely different properties and is termed 
steel. 

As is well known the properties of steel are quite 
different from those of iron. It is harder, more elastic, 
and more tenacious, and fuses somewhat more readily. 
By still further increasing the carbon in the iron to 
about three per cent., we have what is known as cast- 
iron. It is more fusible than steel, but brittle, and can- 
not be worked under the hammer (it cracks). Accord- 
ing to the content of carbon, it shows a gray to nearly 



RELATIONS OF METALS, 41 

white color (gray and white east-iron) and a crystalline 
structure. 

A content of sulphur or phosphorus exerts a still 
greater effect upon the properties of iron than one of 
carbon. Iron, containing but a few thousandths of sul- 
phur, can only be worked in the heat ; if hammered in 
the " cold" it cracks ; it has become what is termed " cold- 
short/' L e.j brittle when cold. With a still smaller con- 
tent of phosphorus-, the iron cannot be worked with the 
hammer, even at a red heat, and at a white heat cracks 
under the hammer; it has become " red-short" or " hot- 
short." The admixture of these bodies (carbon, sulphur, 
and phosphorus) with the metals is frequently an unin- 
tentional one, it being due to the nature of the ores used. 

Before proceeding with the description of the proper- 
ties of the alloys and the manner of their manufacture, 
it will be convenient in order to avoid unnecessary repe- 
tition later on to give a short sketch of the special pro- 
perties of the separate metals. As previously mentioned, 
some metals can be readily combined according to certain 
fixed proportions. In such case we have not alloys in 
the actual sense of the word (/. e\, mixtures of metals), 
but rather chemical combinations. 

By a chemical combination is understood the union 
of two or more simple elements in unalterable propor- 
tions or multiples thereof. Each element possesses the 
property of combining the other according to a propor- 
tion of weight admitting of no variation whatever, and 
the quantity of weight, which enters into the combina- 
tion, and is capable of so completely invalidating the 
properties of the other bodies that, SO to say, a new body 

4* 



42 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



is formed, is termed the atomic or indivisible weight. 
The names of the most important elements are given in 
the annexed table, together with their symbols and 
atomic weights, which express the proportions in which 
they combine together, or simple multiples of those 
proportions. The symbols are formed of the first letters 
of the Latin names of the elements, a second letter being 
added when the names of two or more elements begin 
with the same letter. 

Table of elementary bodies with their symbols and 
atomic weights. 

Nox-Metals. 



Name. 



-'Yi.| = 

bol. 



Hydrogen . . . H 
Chlorine . .. . .CI 

Oxygen . . ; . j O 
Suiphur .... I S 



Atomic 
weight. 



1 
35.5 
16 
32 



Name. 



Phosphorus 
Boron 
Carbon 
Silicium . 



Sym- 
bol. 



P 
Bo 

C 

Si 



Atomic 
weight. 



31 

II 
12 

28 



Metals. 



Sodium (Natrium) 


Na 


23 


Nickel .... 


Ni 


58 


Potassium (Kalium) 


K 


39.3 


Copper (Cuprum) 


Cu 


63.4 


Calcium .... 


Ca 


40 


Mercury (Hydrar- 






Magnesium . 


Mg 


24 


gyrum) . . . 


Hg 


200 


Aluminium . . . 


Al 


27.4 


Silver (Argentum) 


Ag 


108 


Zinc 


Zn 


65 


Gold (Aurum) . . 


Au 


196 


Cadmium . . . 


Cd 


112 


Platinum 


Pt 


197.5 


Lead (Plumbum) . 


Pb 


207 


Antimony (Stibium) 


Sb 


120 


Iron (Ferrum) . . 
Chromium 


Fe 


56 


Arsenic .... 


As 


75 


Cr 


52.2 


Bismuth .... 


Bi 


208 


Manganese . . . 


Mn 


55 


Tin (Stannum) 


Sn 


US 


Cobalt .... 


Co 


59 


Tungsten or Wolfram 


w. 


184 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 43 

III. 

SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 

a. Alkali-mebah. — As previously mentioned, the alkali- 
metals occur in the ashes of land and marine plants, 
potassium especially in that of land plants and sodium 
in that of marine plants. Both metals can he prepared 
in large quantities by treating their carbonates, potas- 
sium carbonate or sodium carbonate, with charcoal and 
chalk in iron retorts at a white heat. They arc brilliant- 
Avhite with a high degree of lustre. At an ordinary 
temperature they are soft and may be easily cut with a 
knife. They have a very low melting point, potassium 
melting completely at 144.5° F., and sodium at 207.5 C F. 
Exposed to the air both metals rapidly oxidize, and 
must, therefore, be preserved under a fluid containing 
no oxygen (petroleum). In consequence of these proper- 
ties neither potassium nor sodium can be used in the 
industries, and serve only for the indirect preparation 
of some metals. For instance, by a combination oi 
aluminium and chlorine with potassium or sodium, the 
latter, in consequence oi' their stronger affinity for chlo- 
rine, withdraw it from the combination, whereby the 
aluminium is liberated. Several other metals can be 
prepared in a similar manner. 

b. Metal* of /!><• <t/I:<t/iit<' earths, — To this group belong, 
besides calcium, occurring in limestone, gypsum, and 
several other minerals, barium and strontium. 'flic 
affinity of these metals for oxygen is so great, that, like 



44 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

potassium and sodium, they have to be kept under 
petroleum, and are not used in the form of metals in 
the industries. 

c. Metals of the earths proper. — The most important of 
this group for our purposes is aluminium (Al ; atomic 
weight 27.4). It is the most widely distributed metal 
on earth. It is never found in the metallic state, but 
always combined with oxygen, and in this form A1 2 3 
is the basis of many of the commonest rocks, and the 
chief constituent of most clays. It is found in porphy- 
ries, igneous rocks, and in connection with quartz in 
granite, gneiss, mica, schist, syenite, and some sandstone. 
There is, therefore, an abundance of cheap raw material, 
but as the processes for the production of the metal have 
heretofore depended on the use of expensive chemicals, 
it is so costly that it is far from occupying its true place 
in the arts. It is usually produced by heating the double 
chloride of aluminium and sodium, or the native double 
fluoride or cryolite with sodium. A mixture of 10 parts 
of the double chloride, 5 parts of fluorspar or cryolite, 
and 2 parts of sodium is thrown upon the red-hot hearth 
of a small reverberatory furnace, and the dampers are 
closed to prevent the entrance of air. Intense reaction 
occurs, and the materials are completely liquefied. When 
the reduction is finished, the slag (consisting of a mix- 
ture of common salt and aluminium fluoride) and the 
reduced aluminium are run out through a hole at the 
back of the furnace. In preparing the metal from cryo- 
lite, this mineral is mixed with half its weight of com- 
mon salt, and the mixture is heated with sodium in an 
iron or earthen crucible. The metal obtained by reduc- 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 45 

tion with sodium usually contains more or less silicon, 



iron, and admixed slag. 

The following description of the methods in vogue at 
Salindere, France, is given by E. D. Self: — * 

The process differs from the one first used industri- 
ally in that the double chloride of aluminium and 
sodium is substituted for the single chloride A1 2 C1 6 , 
though it is very hygroscopic, and, on becoming mois- 
tened, oxidizes to Al 2 O a . The material chiefly employed 
at Salindere is bauxite, and the process consists, briefly, 
of the following steps : — 

1. Preparation of the aluminate of soda and the solu- 
tion of this salt to separate the oxide of iron contained 
in the ore. 

2. Preparation of A1 2 3 by precipitating it from the 
soda solution with C0 2 . 

3. Preparation of the mixture of A1 2 3 , carbon and 
salt, and drying and treating with chlorine sms to obtain 
the double chloride. 

4. Treatment of the double chloride with sodium to 
obtain metallic aluminium. 

The aluminate of soda Al 2 3 .3 (XaO) is produced by 
calcining a mixture of bauxite (Al 2 () 3 and sesquioxide 
of iron) and carbonate of soda, and then dissolving and 
filtering off the soluble aluminate from the sesquioxide 
of iron. The alumina is now precipitated from the 
soda solution by C0 2 thus : — 

Al 2 3 .3(Xa 2 0) 4- 3C0 2 4- 3H a O = 
Al a O,.3H a O + 3(Na,C0 3 ). 

* Journal Franklin Institute, March. I ss 7. 



46 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The formation of the double chloride by the action 
of chlorine on a mixture of alumina, carbon, and salt is 
thus expressed :— 
A1 2 3 + 3C + 2NaCl + 6C1 = Al a CI fl .2NaCl + SCO. 

Finally, the reduction of the double chloride by 
sodium is : — 

Al 2 Cl 6 .2NaCl + 6Na = 2A1 + 8XaCl. 

Considerable difficulty was at first experienced in the 
manufacture of aluminium to find a flux whose density 
was low enough and, at the same time, was free from 
iron. Cryolite, however, seems to answer the purpose 
very well, and produces a very fusible slag, beneath 
which the metal collects. The proportions for the con- 
stituents of a charge are : Double chloride 200 lbs., 
cryolite 90 lbs., sodium 70 lbs. 

The double chloride and cryolite are mixed, and then 
divided into four equal parts. The sodium is divided 
into three parts, and is so put in that it has a layer of 
the double chloride and cryolite beneath it on the hearth 
of the furnace, and between it in successive layers, the 
top one being composed of the cryolite mixture. 

As heat is applied the first flow is melted slag, then 
aluminium, and finally a gray cinder containing small 
portions of the metal. 

F. Lauterborn, of Dortmund, has patented in Ger- 
many the following process of preparing aluminium 
from aluminium sulphate by means of antimony and 
coal at a high temperature : The crude aluminium sul- 
phate is freed from water by heating in crucibles or 
upon a hearth, and the resulting porous mass pulverized. 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 47 

100 parts of aluminium sulphate, 50 of coal, and 72 of 
antimony are mixed, and after adding fluor spar, sodium 
carbonate, or sodium sulphide for the formation of slag, 
the mixture is heated in a crucible or furnace until it 
melts, and for some time kept in flux by means of a 
blowing engine. The specifically very heavy sulphide 
of antimony formed settles on the bottom of the cruci- 
ble, but is converted into slag by the addition of sodium. 
The antimony is regained as regulus from the sulphide 
of antimony by means of iron in the known manner. 

At the present time strenuous efforts are made to 
cheapen the manufacture of the metal. The Cowlcs 
Brothers, of Cleveland, Ohio, have lately invented a 
process of reducing the refracting ores of many metals 
by electrical means, which promises to become very im- 
portant in the arts. They construct a rectangular box 
of fire- resisting material, lined with a mixture of fine 
charcoal and lime. It has a removable cover, which is 
perforated with openings to allow the escape of gases 
evolved. In the sides of this furnace the electrodes — 
two plates of gas carbon — arc let in by means of which 
the current of a powerful dynamo-electric machine is 
introduced. The charge consists of a mixture of the 
coarsely crushed ore and coke fragments, 'flic essential 
feature of the process consists, therefore, in employing 
in the furnace a substance like carbon, whose high resist- 
ance to the passage of the current causes the production 
of a prodigiously high temperature, and which, at the 
same time, is capable of* exercising a powerful reducing 
action on the ore. With such an arrangement of appa- 
ratus and by the use of a powerful electric current, the 



48 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

inventors have succeeded in reducing aluminium from 
corundum, boron from boracic acid, and silicium from 
quartz. They have greatly cheapened the cost of alu- 
minium-bronzes and brasses, and it is expected to be 
able to produce pure aluminium in quantity at much 
lower prices than has heretofore been possible. 

The greatest value of aluminium, perhaps, is in the 
wonderful alloys it is capable of producing. These are 
very numerous and always satisfactory, alloyed with 
wrought iron and steel, giving certain properties that 
enable those metals to be cast successfully and without 
blow-holes; with copper, the beautiful gold bronze; 
with silver, the tiers argent of the French ; and with 
zinc, nickel, tin, and manganese, it forms valuable and 
characteristic alloys, giving to them qualities of great 
tensile strength, immunity from oxidation, and other 
advantages. 

Aluminium is a white, highly lustrous metal ; it may 
be beaten out or rolled into thin foil or drawn out into 
fine wire. It is quite hard, melts at a very high tem- 
perature (at about that of silver), and shows a density 
after fusion of about 2.56, which can be increased to 
2.67 by hammering. Air has no oxidizing action upon 
it at any temperature, and it is not attacked by fused 
nitre or by nitric or dilute sulphuric acid, sulphuretted 
hydrogen, or the alkaline sulphides. Hydrochloric acid 
and solutions of the alkaline hydroxides dissolve it 
readily, hydrogen being evolved. Aluminium has been 
found to be of considerable use in the manufacture of 
jewelry, in the mountings of astronomical instruments, 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 4!) 

and in the construction of balance beams and chemical 

weights. 

Magnesium (Mg ; atomic weight 24) is another metal 
belonging to this group. This element, in a state of 
combination, occurs widely distributed, and is found in 
a great variety of minerals. Metallic magnesium is 
now obtained on a considerable scale by heating the an- 
hydrous chloride with sodium and distilling the crude 
product. It possesses a silvery white color, and acquires 
a high lustre by polishing. When strongly heated in 
contact with air it burns with a bright, white light, rich 
in chemically active rays. 

Recent experiments made in Gharlottenburg, Ger- 
many, on the tensile strength of metallic magnesium, 
show that it is higher than that of aluminium and brass 
and nearly equal to that of bronze or Delta metal. Its 
specific gravity is 1.75. At a temperature of 842° F. 
it can be rolled, pressed, worked, and brought into com- 
plicated forms. Screws and threads can be made of 
magnesium, and these are considerably sharper and 
more exaet than those from aluminium. 

d. Heavy uicfa/s. — To this group belong the metals of 
the most importance to the industries. They are divided 
according to their chemical behavior into several sub- 
divisions, named after the most common metal occurring 
in them. We speak, therefore, of a zinc group, iron 
group, silver group, etc., and this division will be here 
retained, it being very suitable to make clear the con- 
nection existing between certain minerals. 



50 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

1. Iron Group. 
(Iron, manganese, cobalt, nickel, chromium, uranium.) 

Among the metals belonging to this group iron is 
most widely distributed and most frequently used. It 
forms, however, but a small number of alloys available 
in the industries. Nevertheless, on a close examination 
it will be found that many alloys contain a small quan- 
tity of iron, which, however, has not been added inten- 
tionally, but been introduced as a contamination of the 
metals constituting the alloy. But, as we will see later 
on, a very small quantity of a metal frequently suffices 
to exert considerable influence upon the physical prop- 
erties of an alloy. 

Iron (Fe ; atomic weight 56). — Native iron is of ex- 
ceedingly rare occurrence, but it enters into the compo- 
sition of many of those extraordinary stones known to 
fall from the air called meteorites. The iron as fur- 
nished by the iron works is never pure, but always con- 
tains small quantities of carbon, manganese, silicon, and 
other bodies. Chemically pure iron can be obtained by 
reducing peroxide of iron by hydrogen at a red heat, or 
by remelting the purest varieties of malleable iron with 
an oxidizing flux in order to remove the last traces of 
combined carbon. The physical properties of the metal 
vary very considerably according to the means adopted 
for its production. When obtained by reducing per- 
oxide of iron by hydrogen at the lowest possible tem- 
perature at which the change can be effected (according 
to Magnus between 600° and 700° F.) it forms a dark- 
gray powder, which combines energetically with oxygen, 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 51 

taking fire spontaneously when slightly heated and 
thrown into the air. When, however, the reduction 
takes place at a higher temperature, the metallic powder 
agglutinates to a sponge of filamentous texture, a silvery- 
gray color, and metallic lustre which is no longer pyro- 
phoric. 

Larger and more compact masses may be obtained by 
removing the last traces of carbon and other foreign 
substances from the purest commercial wrought iron in 
the following manner : A small quantity of good 
wrought iron, such as piano-forte wire or Russian black 
plate, cut up into small pieces, and either rusted by ex- 
posure to steam or mixed with about 20 per cent, of 
pure peroxide of iron, is to be melted under glass fiee 
from metallic oxides, in a refractory crucible, at a strong 
white heat, the operation requiring about an hour's full 
heat of a good wind furnace. The small quantity of 
carbon present in the metal is expended in reducing a 
portion of the sesquioxide, the remainder passing into 
the slag. The result is a brilliant well-melted button 
of metal, which exhibits a decidedly crystalline struc- 
ture similar to that observed in meteorites when treated 
with an etching liquor, and is somewhat softer, but less 
tenacious than the iron originally employed. This last 
method of producing pure iron is recommended for ex- 
perimenting in the preparation of alloys with iron, 
though, if too troublesome, the best quality of piano- 
forte wire will answer the purpose. 

Iron is very easily oxidized ; in a damp atmosphere 
the rusl has a wry destructive action and necessitates 
the employment of varnishes and other preservative 



52 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

coatings. In the melted state or at a red heat iron in 
contact with the air is rapidly oxidized, and acids at- 
tack and dissolve it easily. It does not alloy well 
with most of the metals, this being largely due to its 
peculiar condition, the high temperature required for its 
fusion, etc. 

Manganese (Mn ; atomic weight 55). — Compounds of 
manganese are very widely distributed, although the 
element is never found free in nature. One of the most 
commonly occurring of these compounds is the black 
oxide or pyrolusite. Manganese being almost always 
associated with iron, small quantities of it are found in 
almost every brand of the latter. In regard to its 
properties, it is closely allied to iron and appears in the 
form of a reddish-white metallic body, which is quite 
brittle and so hard as to scratch glass. While pure iron 
oxidizes only in contact with moist air but remains un- 
altered in dry air, manganese has a somewhat greater 
affinity for oxygen, and becomes coated with a layer of 
rust even in contact with dry air. It has, therefore, to 
be kept under petroleum. This property prevents the 
general application of this metal in the industries, but 
in modern times it is used quite frequently for the pro- 
duction of certain alloys, it having been found that 
steel containing a certain quantity of manganese pos- 
sesses a higher degree of hardness. 

Cobalt (Co ; atomic weight 58.7). — Compounds of 
cobalt appear to have been known to the ancients and 
used by them in coloring glass. The metal itself was 
first isolated by Brand in 1733. Metallic cobalt is oc- 
casionally found in meteoric iron, associated with nickel 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 53 

and phosphorus. Its principal naturally occurring com- 
pounds arc the arsenide, smaltine, or tin-white cobalt; 

cobalt bloom or erythrine and cobalt glance. The pure 
metal is unalterable in air, even when moist, of a red- 
white color, very difficult to fuse, highly malleable and 
ductile, and capable of taking a polish ; its specific 
gravity is about 8.9. It is slightly magnetic, and pre- 
serves this property even when alloyed with mercury. 
It bears in many respects a close resemblance to nickel, 
and is often associated with the latter in nature. It is 
not used by itself, and only very seldom as an inten- 
tional addition to alloys. The protoxide is used in the 
color industry, the colors prepared from it being much 
employed in painting glass and porcelain. 

Nickel (Ni ; atomic weight 58). — Chemically nickel is 
closely related to iron and cobalt, which metals arc often 
associated with it in nature. The word " nickel" is a 
term of detraction, having been applied by the old (Jer- 
nitm miners to what was looked upon as a kind of false 
copper. 

The arsenide, a copper-colored mineral termed ll kup- 
fernickel" (/'. c, false copper), and the impure arsenide 
termed "speiss," formed at the bottom <>f the melting 
pots in the manufacture of "smalt," constitute the prin- 
cipal sources of nickel. Nickel ores are found in France, 
Sweden, Cornwall, Spain, Germauy, New Caledonia, 
and in some Localities in the United States, Pennsyl- 
vania, however, supplying the greatest quantity. The 
preparation of metallic nickel is connected with many 
difficulties. It is generally found in commerce in the 
form of small cubes of a dull-gray appearance. By 



54 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

melting these cubes at a very high temperature, the 
metal is obtained as a silver-white mass of considerable 
hardness, which takes a fine polish,, and is unalterable 
in dry air. Its specific gravity is greater than that of 
iron, being 8.3 to 8.9, and with about an equal fusibility 
is far less subject to oxidation and corrosion. Its oxide 
is white, and defaces the polished metal comparatively 
little, and is easily removed. Nickel can be either cast 
or forged, but it is generally used in making alloys or 
plating more oxidizable metals. It is slightly magnetic 
at ordinary temperatures, but loses this property on 
heating. 

The malleability of nickel allows of its being chased, 
as are silver and gold, and with the result of greater 
lustre, while the qualities of brilliancy, hardness, and 
durability, whether used solidly or in electro-plating, 
make it very suitable for table service. 

Dr. Fleitniann, of Iserlohn, has devised a simple 
and successful process of refining and toughening 
nickel, which is now very largely used. It produces a 
homogeneous metal, from which castings may be made 
with much less liability to the presence of blow-holes 
than with other methods. Fleitmann ? s procedure con- 
sists in adding to the melted charge in the pot, when 
ready to pour, a very small quantity of magnesium. 
The magnesium is added in small quantities at a time 
and stirred into the charge. About one ounce of mag- 
nesium is found to be sufficient for purifying 60 pounds 
of nickel. The theory of the operation is that the 
magnesium reduces the occluded carbonic oxide, uniting 
with its oxygen to form magnesia, while carbon is sepa- 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 55 

rated in the form of graphite. The nickel refined by 
this method is said to become remarkably tough and 
malleable, and maybe rolled into sheets and drawn into 
wire. Cast plates (intended for anodes in nickel plating), 
after reheating, can be readily rolled down to the re- 
quired thickness, which greatly improves them for 
plating purposes, as they dissolve with greater uni- 
formity in the plating bath. Nickel so heated may be 
rolled into sheets as thin as paper, and has been success- 
fully welded upon iron and steel plates. 

Nickel readily alloys with the majority of metals, the 
resulting alloys possessing properties which for certain 
purposes render them almost indispensable. The alloys 
known as argentan, German silver, China silver, similor, 
argent Ruolz, etc., are prepared with the assistance of 
nickel. It is also occasionally employed for coinage, 
nickel coinage having been commenced about 1850 by 
Switzerland and in the United States in 18o7. 

Chromium (Cr ; atomic weight 52.2). — The principal 
naturally occurring compound of this element is chrome 
iron-stone. In a pure state the metal forms a gray- 
white mass, with a melting point higher than that of 
platinum. In a metallic state it finds no application 
whatever, but its combinations are used in the color in- 
dustry, they being distinguished by a special splendor. 
Nearly the same holds good in regard to the metallic 
tint nhim (V ; atomic weight 240), which occurs in a lew- 
rare minerals (pitch-blende), and is used in the manu- 
facture of the peculiarly fluorescent uranium glass. 

Among the metals belonging to the iron group nickel 
is the most important for our purposes, on account of 



56 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the numerous alloys which can be prepared with its as- 
sistance. Among the other metals iron is of some im- 
portance, small quantities of it, as previously mentioned, 
being frequently met with as accidental impurities in 
many alloys. 

. 2. Zinc Group. ^ 
(Zinc, cadmium, indium, gallium.) 

Zinc (Zn ; atomic weight 65). — The most valuable 
zinc ore is the native carbonate or calamine, which, to- 
gether with the sulphide or blende, constitutes the prin- 
cipal source of the zinc of commerce. Zinc ores occur 
abundantly in the United States, the best being obtained 
in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, and in a 
line of deposits running through West Virginia and the 
Middle States, across to Illinois, Missouri, and Kansas, 
and north into Wisconsin. Large quantities are mined 
in Missouri and other parts of the country and in 
Europe. Zinc in the metallic state was not familiar to 
the ancients, although they were accustomed to use its 
ores in the manufacture of brass. The alchemist Para- 
celsus, in 1541, makes mention of metallic zinc, but it 
was doubtless known before his time, and was probably 
discovered by Albertus Magnus, who called it marchasita 
aurea. It became a regular article of manufacture 
about 1720, in Germany, and in England fifteen or 
twenty years later. It has been regularly manufactured 
in the United States since about 1850, first in New 
Jersey and later in a number of other localities. 

Metallic zinc is a bluish-white metal known to the 
trade as " spelter." Its properties are rather peculiar, 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. o7 

and, as it plays an important part in the manufacture 
of alloys, will have to be more closely considered. 
Zinc is hard and brittle, and, when fractured, exhibits 
a highly-crystalline structure. It experiences very little 
alteration in the air, it becoming very slowly coated 
with a permanent and impenetrable coating — a basic 
carbonate — which renders it very valuable for sheathing 
and for work exposed to the weather. Zinc can be cast, 
and makes good architectural ornaments. The castings 
made at a high temperature are brittle and crystalline; 
when cast at near the melting-point they are compara- 
tively malleable. Zinc is hardened by working, and 
must be occasionally annealed. 

Zinc at an ordinary temperature shows a consider- 
able degree of brittleness, and if a piece of sheet-zinc 
be several times bent backward and forward it soon 
breaks. By heating the zinc, however, to between 230° 
and 302° F., it acquires a considerable degree of ductil- 
ity, and can be rolled out into thin sheets. At a still 
higher temperature it again becomes brittle, and, when 
heated to 392° F., can readily be reduced to a powder. 
Its density varies between 6.9 and 7.2, the latter being 
that of the rolled metal. Zinc melts at 773.5° F. By 
heating the fused metal but a little above its melting- 
point with the admission of air, it ignites, and burns 
with a bright, white flame to a very spongy, pure, white 
powder, forming the oxide known under the name of 
" zinevwhite," and employed as a pigment. \i is chiefly 
valued for its permanency, as it is not blackened by 
exposure to sulphuretted hydrogen like white lead. 
At a white heat zinc boils, and can be distilled. Zinc 



58 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

unites readily with the greater number of metals, and is 
extensively used in the manufacture of alloys. 

Cadmium (Cd ; atomic weight 112).— Compounds of 
this metal occur associated with zinc ores, and, being 
more volatile than zinc, it is chiefly found in the first 
portion of the distilled metal when the ores are reduced 
by carbon. Cadmium resembles tin in color, but is 
somewhat harder ; it is white, malleable, and ductile ; 
has a density of 8.7 ; melts below 392° F., and is 
nearly as volatile as mercury. The metal is of but 
little use, except as a constituent of some alloys, espe- 
cially of those fusing at a low temperature. It is also 
employed in the preparation of amalgams. The sul- 
phide of cadmium, known as cadmium yellow, is bright 
in color, and has qualities of great value to artists. 

Indium (In ; atomic weight 113.4). — This rare metal 
was discovered in 1863 by Reich and Richter in the 
zinc-blende of Freiberg, and has since been found in a 
few other zinc ores and in the flue-dust of zinc furnaces. 
It occurs associated with zinc in blende to the extent of 
0.006 to 0.1 per cent., and is best obtained from the 
crude metal or "spelter." It is a silver-white, soft, 
ductile metal of speeifie gravity 7.4. It melts at 
348.8° F., and 'oxidizes at a high temperature. It is 
less volatile than cadmium or zinc. AVhen heated to 
redness in the air, it burns with a violet flame, and is 
converted into the yellow sesquioxide. Heated in chlo- 
rine it burns with a yellow-green light, and forms a 
chloride which sublimes without fusion at an incipient 
red-heat in soft, white lamina?. 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 59 

Gallium (Ga ; atomic weight 69.9). — This metal was 
discovered in 1875 by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in a zinc- 
blende from the mine of Pierrefitte, in the valley of 

Argeles, Pyrenees, and has likewise been found, though 
always in very small quantity, in blendes from other 
localities. Gallium is a hard metal, somewhat whiter 
than platinum, and acquires a good polish by pressure. 
It is sectilc, and somewhat malleable. Its specific grav- 
ity is 5.9, and its melting-point 86.2° F., so that it 
liquefies when pressed between the fingers. Frequently, 
also, it remains liquid for a long time, even when cooled 
nearly to 0°. The melted metal adheres to glass, form- 
ing a mirror whiter than that produced by mercury. 
When heated to bright redness in contact with the 
air it oxidizes merely on the surface, and does not vola- 
tilize. 

3. Tungsten group. 
(Tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium.) 

Among the three metals forming this group, which, :i- 
regards their properties, approach the iron group, tung- 
sten alone has found some application in the manufac- 
ture of alloys. 

Tungsten (Wo; atomic weight 184). — This element is 
very sparingly distributed in nature, its principal native 
compounds being wolfram,^ tungstate of Iron and man- 
ganese, calcium tungstate or scheelite and lead tungstate. 
Metallic tungstate forms an infusible steel-gray crystal- 
line powder of specific gravity 17.1. In modern times 
general attention has been drawn to tungsten by its pro- 
perty of imparting an exceedingly high degree "I hard- 



GO THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ness to steel when mixed with it in small quantities. 
Compounded with other metals it forms exceedingly 
hard, infusible alloys. 

The other two metals of the tungsten group, molyb- 
denum (Mo; atomic weight 96) and vanadium (V; 
atomic weight 51.3) have only been found in small 
quantities in some rare minerals, and have thus far 
found no application in the manufacture of alloys. 

4. Tin group. 
(Tin, titanium, zirconium, thorium.) 

This group contains the metals above mentioned, but 
with the exception of tin they are of no industrial im- 
portance whatever, and belong to the greatest rarities. 
We, therefore, have only to deal with tin. 

Tin (Sn ; atomic weight 118). — Native tin is exceed- 
ingly rare, but it can be readily extracted from tin-stone 
or cassiterite, occurring in great abundance in Cornwall, 
Devonshire, Malacca, and Banca, the tin obtained from 
the latter place being exceptionally pure. A consider- 
able quantity of tin ore is obtained from Saxony, South 
America, and Australia. Small quantities of the ore 
are found in California and other States west of the 
Mississippi, in Maine and in Alabama. It is only 
worked at Ashland, Clay Co., in the latter State, and 
there only since 1883. 

Commercial tin is never pure. The following table 
shows a set of analyses given by Bruno-Kerl.* 

* Metalhuttenkunde, 1873. 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 



01 





Banca. 


British. 


Peruvian. 


Saxon. 


Bohemian. 




I. 


II. 


<• 


II. 


'• 


II. 


i. „. 


Tin . . . 


99.961 


99.9 


99.96 


98.64 


93.50 


95.66 


99.9 


99.59 98.18 


Iron 


0.019 


0.2 


— 


— 


0.07 


0.07 


— 


— — 


Lead . . 


0.014 


— 


— 


0.20 


2.76 


1.93 


— 


— — 


Copper 


0.006 


— 


0.24 


0.16 


— 


— 


— 


0.406 1.60 


Antimony 


— 


— 


— 


— 


3.76 


2.34 


— 


— — 


Bismuth . 


" 


— 




- ~~ 




— ~ 


0.1 





Chemically pure tin is a white metal with a strong 
lustre; it has a specific gravity of 7.28 to 7.4, according 
to the method of preparation, the purest being lightest 
It scarcely oxidizes in moist air, and entirely retains its 
metallic lustre in dry air. It possesses but little tenacity, 
but is quite malleable, and can be rolled into very thin 
plates (tin-foil). It is highly crystalline, and when bent 
gives out a crackling noise, the so-called "tin-cry/' 
caused by the crystals rubbing against each other. It 
possesses a peculiar odor. It melts at 453° F. When 
fused in contact with air it acquires a film of oxide, and 
at a white heat burns with a bright flame, and is con- 
verted into a whitish powder, known as "putty-pow- 
der," and used in the arts for polishing. 

Unmanufactured tin comes into market as "block 
tin," as "grain tin," and in small bars or "sticks." 
Block tin is cast in ingots or blocks in moulds of mar- 
ble; grain tin is made by heating these ingots until very 
brittle, and then breaking them upon stone blocks; it 
is sometimes granulated by melting and pouring into 
water. 

Tin, though soft by itself, possesses the remarkable 



62 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

property of imparting to certain alloys a high degree of 
hardness. It being quite indifferent towards certain 
organic acids it is extensively used for coating other 
metals, as iron, copper, lead, etc. 

5. Lead group. 
(Lead, thallium.) 

Lead (Pb ; atomic weight 207). — This metal is much 
used in the manufacture of al]oys. It is so soft that it 
may be easily scratched with the finger nail,- but it has 
too little tenacity to be drawn into fine wire, although 
some lead wire is found in the market. It is very 
malleable, and is extensively used in the forms of sheet- 
lead and lead-pipe. It was formerly employed for cast- 
ing statues, but its use for this purpose has been almost 
entirely abandoned at the present time, experience hav- 
ing shown that, though such statues resist the action of 
the air quite well, they gradually sink together. 

Pure lead is a bluish-white, lustrous, inelastic metal ; 
when freshly cut or melted it shows a bright surface, 
which, however, rapidly tarnishes on exposure to the air. 
It is very heavy, its specific gravity being 11.4, and is 
easily fusible, melting at about 620° P. It boils and 
volatilizes at a white heat, but cannot be distilled from 
closed vessels. The affinity of lead for oxygen is so 
great, that in melting the surface becomes coated with a 
yellow layer of oxide ; on removing this layer with a 
hook, the pure white color of the metal shows itself, but 
immediately disappears again. In this manner large 
quantities of lead can in a short time be converted into 
oxide. The alloys of lead are distinguished by great 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 68 

fusibility, a valuable property for some purposes, and 
by being, as a rule, much harder than the lead itself. 

Thallium (Tl ; atomic weight 203.64) is a metal very 
much resembling lead. It is widely distributed, being 
found in iron and copper pyrites, in blende, in native 
sulphur, and in lepidolite. It is most profitably ex- 
tracted from the flue dust of the pyrites burners. It 
has a strong metallic lustre, but quickly tarnishes by 
oxidation. Its specific gravity is about 11.8, and it is 
softer even than lead. Several alloys exhibiting char- 
acteristic properties have been prepared with the assist- 
ance of thallium, but the metal is too expensive to be 
used for technical purposes. 

6. Silver Group. 
(Silver, mercury, and copper.) 

The metals belonging to this group are of great im- 
portance in the manufacture of alloys, copper being es- 
pecially distinguished in this respect, since there are an 
exceedingly large number of alloys used for various in- 
dustrial purposes of which it forms the principal con- 
stituent. The other two metals belonging to this group 
are also much employed for the same purpose, and it 
may be said that this group is the one deserving special 
attention of all interested in alloys. 

Copper (Cu ; atomic weight 63.4). — This metal has 
been known from very early times, it being found na- 
tive in many parts of the earth and required, therefore, 
simply to be melted in order to obtain it in a form -nit- 
able for technical purposes. It was used for the rnanu- 



64 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

facture of tools and weapons long before the discovery 
of methods for the extraction of iron. 

Copper has a characteristic yellowish-red (copper-reel) 
color, but on exposure to the air becomes gradually 
coated with a brown layer of oxide. Heated to redness 
in the air it is quickly oxidized, becoming covered with 
a black scale. It has a specific gravity of 8.9, and is 
tough, very malleable, and ductile, so that it can be 
rolled out into very thin leaves and drawn out to fine 
wires. It melts at a bright red heat, and seems to be 
slightly volatile at a strong white heat. 

Copper combines with a great number of metals, the 
resulting alloys belonging to the most important known. 
All alloys known as bronze, brass, argentan, etc., con- 
tain copper in varying quantities, and possess properties 
which render them indispensable for certain branches of 
the metal industry. 

Mercury (Hg ; atomic weight 200). — This remarka- 
ble metal, sometimes called quicksilver, has also been 
known from remote times, and, perhaps more than 
all others, has excited the attention and curiosity of 
experimenters by reason of its peculiar physical prop- 
erties. Metallic mercury is occasionally found free and 
in union with silver and gold, but its chief source 
is the sulphide or cinnabar. Mercury has a nearly 
silver-white color and a very high degree of lustre. It 
is liquid at ordinary temperatures and solidifies only 
when cooled to — 40° F. In this state it is soft and 
malleable. The density of pure mercury is 13.596. It 
boils at 662° F., but volatilizes to a sensible extent at 
all temperatures. In regard to its behavior in the air, 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 65 

it is a medium between the metals, readily combining 
with oxygen and those which show no special affinity 
for it. Since it does not combine with oxygen at an or- 
dinary temperature and retains its metallic* lustre even 
in a moist atmosphere, it is generally included among 
the so-called noble metals. 

But when it is heated for some time to near its boiling 
point, it slowly absorbs oxygen and is gradually con- 
verted into a bright-red, crystalline powder — mercuric 
oxide. By heating the oxide thus formed somewhat 
stronger, it is again decomposed into its constituents, 
oxygen and metallic mercury. 

Mercury readily alloys or, as it is generally called, 
amalgamates with other metals, forming in many eases 
definite chemical combinations. The amalgams are 
either liquid, the degree of fluidity depending on the 
quantity of metals compounded with the mercury, or 
they form solid bodies with perceptible crystallization 
and frequently a high degree of hardness. Several of 
these amalgams are employed in the arts, tin amalgam 
in the manufacture of mirrors, amalgams of tin, gold, 
and silver by dentists. 

Si/rcr (Ag ; atomic weight 108). — This element is fre- 
quently found in the metallic or native state crystallized 
in cubes or octahedra, which are sometimes aggregated 
together. It is more frequently met with, however, in 
combination with sulphur, forming the sulphide of 
silver, which is generally associated with large quanti- 
ties of the sulphides of lead, antimony, and iron. The 
metal has been known from very early times, and al- 
though quite widely diffused is (bund in comparatively 

G* 



66 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

small quantity, and hence bears a high value which 
adapts it for a medium of currency. It has a character- 
istic (silver-white) color, which it retains even when 
fused in contact with air, and by reason of this property 
has to be classed with the noble metals. Its specific 
gravity is about 10.48 and may be increased by ham- 
mering. It is harder than gold, but somewhat softer 
than copper, and next to gold is the most ductile of all 
metals. It can be rolled out into thin leaves, so that a 
small quantity of silver suffices to cover a large surface, 
and on account of its toughness can be drawn out into 
wires so fine as to be scarcely perceptible by the naked 
eye. It melts at about 1680° F.; at a white heat a 
strong volatilization takes place, whereby the silver is 
converted into bluish-purple vapor. The behavior of 
silver when fused in contact with the air is very re- 
markable. It absorbs a considerable quantity of oxygen 
without, however, chemically combining with it, the 
oxygen being again expelled as the metal solidifies. 

Silver is too soft to be worked by itself, pure silver 
being only used for special purposes where the presence 
of another metal would exert an injurious effect. For 
all other purposes alloys of silver, especially such as 
contain a certain quantity of copper, are employed ; 
silver coins and silver utensils consisting, for instance, 
of an alloy of silver and copper. 

7. Gold Group. 
(Gold and Platinum.) 

The metals belonging to this group are distinguished 
by a high specific gravity, and are the densest bodies 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 67 

known. Their chief characteristic is, however, their 

slight affinity fur oxygen. They can be melted in con- 
tact with the air and exposed to the highest tempera- 
tures without combining with oxygen. Even their com- 
binations with oxygen, which can be obtained in an 
indirect manner, are so unstable that on slight heating 
they yield up the oxygen and are decomposed, the pure 
metal being left behind. On account of being found in 
comparatively small quantities they bear a high value 
and are the most precious of all metals. 

Gold (Au ; atomic weight 196)- — Gold has been 
known from the earliest times, and its comparative 
rarity, its exceptional color, and its power of resisting 
atmospheric influences have caused it to be esteemed as 
one of the most precious metals. As might be expected 
from its want of direct attraction for oxygen, gold is 
one of those few metals which are always found in the 
metallic state, and it is remarkable as being one of the 
most widely distributed elements, although seldom met 
with in large quantity in any one locality. Gold has ;t 
beautiful yellow color, a strong metallic lustre unalter- 
ble in the air, a density of 19.5, is the most ductile o\ 
all metals, and can be drawn out into extremely tine wire. 
It surpasses all other metals in malleability, and can be 
beaten out into thin leaves which transmit the light with 
a green color. It has a very high melting point (about 
2:\1'1" F.)and becomes fluid only at a white heat. It 
can readily be volatilized at a high temperature produced 
by means of electricity. 

Pure gold is nearly as soft as lead, so that articles 
manufactured from it would speedily wear out. In 



68 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

order to increase its hardness when used for articles of 
jewelry or coinage it is alloyed with silver or copper or 
with both. 

Platinum (Pt ; atomic weight 197.5). — This metal is 
always found in the metallic state in the form of grains 
and irregular pieces. As a rule it is, however, not pure, 
but the grains or pieces are generally associated with a 
group of other metals possessing similar properties, viz., 
rhodium, palladium, iridium, ruthenium, as well as 
gold, silver, and iron. Platinum has a gray-white 
color, resembling that of some brands of steel. It is 
heavier than gold, its specific gravity being 21.5. Up 
to the commencement of the present century platinum 
was considered infusible, but at the present time a quan- 
tity of platinum up to 450 pounds can be readily fused 
with the assistance of a heat produced by the use of a 
oxyhydrogen blow-pipe. Platinum is distinguished by 
great chemical indifference, it being scarcely acted upon 
by any single acid, but like gold only dissolves in a 
mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid (nitro- 
muriatic acid). On account of this indifference and its 
comparatively great hardness, it is especially used in 
the manufacture of chemical utensils, it being in this 
respect equal to gold but cheaper. By taking the value 
of silver as the unit, that of platinum is to be taken at 
seven and that of gold at fifteen. 

In a certain respect platinum has some similarity 
with iron : it can be welded, and readily combines with 
carbon to a mass with a lower melting point than that 
of pure platinum. Hence, platinum vessels to be 
heated should always be provided with a coating of 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. <'>!> 

another metal to prevent it from absorbing carbon from 
the flame. 

8. Bismuth Group. 
(Bismuth, antimony.) 

Bismuth (Bi ; atomic weight 210). — This element is 
found in the metallic state, as well as associated with 
sulphur, copper, and lead. It has a peculiar reddish 
lustre, a highly crystalline structure, and is little oxi- 
dized by the air. Its degree of hardness is small, but 
it is so brittle as to be readily pulverized in a mortar. 
It melts at about 500° F., and volatilizes at a, high 
temperature. Its specific gravity is 0.75L 

Bismuth being too brittle to be used by itself, its 
chief employment is in the preparation of certain alloys 
with other metals. Some kinds of type metal and 
stereotype metal contain bismuth, which confers upon 
them the property of expanding in the mould during 
solidification, so that they are forced into the finest lines 
of the impression. This metal is also remarkable for 
its tendency to lower the fusing-point of alloys, which 
cannot be accounted for merely by referring to the low 
fusing-point of the metal itself. It is also employed 
together with antimony in the construction of thermo- 
electric piles. 

Antimony (Sb ; atomic weight 120). — This metal oc- 
curs in a native state as well as in connection with other 
bodies, the sulphide of antimony — known as gray anti- 
mony ore, and occurring in long, needle-like crystals — 
being, however, the chief source. Antimony has :i 

bluish-white color, retains its lustre in the air, crystal- 



70 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

lizes in rhombohedrals, and has a specific gravity of 
6.72. It melts at 842° F. ; and is volatile at a white 
heat. In contact with air at a red heat, it takes fire and 
burns with a white flame and the evolution of hot vapors, 
forming the trioxide. It is so brittle that it can be 
converted into a fine powder by pounding in a mor- 
tar, and hence, like bismuth, cannot be used by itself. 
It is, however, an important metal for the manufacture 
of several useful alloys, and possesses the property of 
increasing the hardness of a metal, even if only mixed 
with it in small quantity. 



Arsenic (As; atomic weight 75). — -This element is 
often classed among the metals on account of its physi- 
cal properties, it having a metallic lustre and conduct- 
ing electricity. But it is not capable of forming a base 
with oxygen, and the chemical character and composi- 
tion of its compounds connects it in the closest manner 
with phosphorus. Arsenic is sometimes found native, 
but far more abundantly in connection with various 
metals forming arsenides, which frequently accompany 
the sulphides of the same metals. In a pure state it is 
a light-gray body, which under exclusion of air shows 
a strong metallic lustre, but assumes a black color on 
coming in contact with the air. It has a specific gravity 
of 5.7, and volatilizes at a red heat. If arsenic be 
thrown upon glowing coals, it volatilizes with the diffu- 
sion of a peculiar odor somewhat resembling that of 
garlic. An addition of arsenic renders metals harder 
and at the same time more brittle, and it is, therefore, 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 71 

somewhat employed in the manufacture of alloys. 
]>ut, on account of its poisonous nature, its use musl be 
avoided in alloys to be used for the manufacture of 

utensils in which food is to be preserved. 

Supplement. 

Alloys are a mixture of two or more metals, but there 
are some so-called alloys consisting of but one metal 
whose properties have been changed in a remarkable 
manner by the addition of a non-metallic element. It 
has been previously pointed out that the properties of 
iron are sensibly changed by a very small addition of 
sulphur or phosphorus, and that carbon acts in a similar 
manner. It will, therefore, be necessary to give a short 
sketch of these elements. 

Sulphur (S; atomic weight .32). — This element is re- 
markable for its abundant occurrence in nature in the 
uncombined state. It is purified by distillation, and 
then forms a crystalline mass of a characteristic pale- 
yellow color, which melts at 232° F.,and at about 78( I I\ 
is converted into ruby-colored vapors. By the admix- 
ture of organic substances sulphur acquires a blade color 
in melting. The affinity of sulphur for most metals is 
so great that they combine with it with great energy. 
If, for instance, copper be thrown into a vessel contain- 
ing sulphur heated to the boiling point, the combination 
takes place and is attended with vivid combustion. An 
intimate mixture of iron and sulphur needs only be 
Slightly heated to effect the union of both bodies, which 

is accompanied by vivid glowing. The combination can 



72 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

even be induced by moistening a larger quantity of the 
mixture with water. 

The combinations of the metals with sulphur are in 
most cases distinguished by a high degree of brittleness, 
a small admixture of sulphur being generally sufficient 
to impart to them this property. And this property 
being by no means a desirable one, care should be had 
in making experiments in the preparation of alloys to 
use only metals absolutely free from sulphur. It may 
also be remarked that in such experiments the presence 
of every foreign body exerts a disturbing influence, and, 
in order to obtain satisfactory results, it is recommended 
to use only chemically pure metals. 

Carbon (C ; atomic weight 12).- — Carbon is the most 
widely diffused element, it forming a never-wanting 
constituent of all animal and vegetable bodies. Few 
elements are capable of assuming so many different 
aspects as carbon. It is met with transparent and 
colorless in the diamond, opaque and black and quasi- 
metallic in graphite or black lead, velvety and porous 
in wood charcoal and, under new conditions, in anthra- 
cite, coke, and gas-carbon. 

In nature carbon appears crystallized in the hexagonal 
form as graphite, in the tessular form as diamond, and 
amorphous as coal in the ordinary sense of the word. 

For our purposes only the modifications known as 
graphite or plumbago and as amorphous coal are of 
interest. 

Carbon, for which no actual solvent is known, has 
the remarkable property of dissolving in considerable 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 73 

quantities in several melted metals, the best known 
example of this being its behavior towards iron. 

As is well known, in the manufacture of iron pure 
iron is never obtained, but the so-called cast-iron which 
contains a certain quantity of carbon. There can be no 
doubt that the carbon is actually dissolved in the iron, 
for in cooling certain varieties of cast-iron containing 
much carbon a certain quantity of it is separated out in 
a crystalline form as graphite. 

The content of carbon, as previously stated in speak- 
ing of iron, exerts a considerable influence upon the 
qualities of a metal, the special properties of the vari- 
ous kinds of iron known as wrought-iron, steel, and 
cast-iron being chiefly due to the varying quantity of 
carbon they contain. Generally speaking, it may be 
said a content of carbon makes the metal more fusible, 
but it is impossible to state in a general way what other 
influence is exerted upon its properties, this influence 
depending essentially on the quantity admixed. It is, 
therefore, only possible to determine in each ease the 
influence exerted upon the properties of a metal by the 
presence of carbon. 

Phosphorus (P ; atomic weight 31). — This element is 
never known to occur uncombined in nature, and its 
properties render the use of special precautions neces- 
sary for its management, it being very inflammable. A 
stick of phosphorus held in the air always appears t<> 
emit a whitish smoke, which in the dark is luminous, 
this effect being chiefly due to a slow combustion the 
phosphorus undergoes by the oxygen of the air. Larger 
quantities of phosphorus exposed to the air become so 

7 



74 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

thoroughly heated by oxidation as to commence to melt 
and spontaneously ignite. A content of phosphorus in 
metals is only possible if ores containing phosphoric 
acid are used in their preparation, whereby a reduction 
of the phosphoric acid to phosphorus takes place which 
combines with the metal. 

In speaking of iron it has already been pointed out 
that a small content of .phosphorus renders it red-short 
or hot-short, i. e., it makes it so brittle that it cannot be 
worked under the hammer even at a red heat. If metals 
be intentionally mixed with phosphorus, the mixtures — 
they cannot be called alloys in the strict sense of the 
word — show also a high degree of brittleness, though it 
is not so far-reaching as is the case with iron, and the 
metal acquires certain properties making it especially 
suitable for many purposes. The so-called phosphor- 
bronze consists of a mass which besides copper contains 
a very small quantity of phosphorus, and shows proper- 
ties rendering it especially desirable for some uses. 



The following table shows the specific gravities and 
melting points of the principal metals : — 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 



75 





Date of 


Name of 


Specific 


Melting 


Name. 


discovery. 


discoverer. 


gravity. 


poiut. 
Degrees F. 


Platinum . . . 


1741 


Wood 


21.5 


_ 


Iridium 






1803 


Descotils 


21.15 




Gold . . 






— 


— 


19.26 


2192° (?) 


Mercury 






— 


— 


15.5 




Palladium . 






1803 


Wollaston 


11.80 


— 


Lead . . 






— 


— 


11.33 


609.3 


Silver . . 






— 


— 


10.57 


1832 


Bismuth 






— 


— 


9.80 


500 


Copper . . 






— 


— 


8.94 


2192(?) 


Nickel . . 






1751 


Cronstedt 


8.82 


— 


Manganese 






1774 


Gahn ; Scheele 


8.02 


— 


Iron . . . 






— 


— 


7.84 


3632(?) 


Tin . . . 






— 


— 


7.30 


458.6 


Zinc . . . 






— 


— 


7.13 


, 773.6 


Antimony . 






— 


— 


6.80 


842 


Aluminium 






1828 


Wohler 


2.56 


— 


Magnesium 






1829 


Bussey 


1.74 


773.6 



Prices of Metals. — The prices of metals are subject to 
so much fluctuation that it is impossible to give a list 
of great accuracy. The following table, calculated by 
Bolton,* may be taken as representing approximate 
values. 



* Engineering and Mining Journal, Aug. 21, 1875. 



76 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 







Value iu gold 


Price 


Metal. 


Statue. 


per pouud 


in gold per 






avoirdupois. 


gramme. 


Vanadium .... 


Cry st. fused 


$4792.40 


$10.80 


Rubidium . . 








Wire 


3261.60 


7.20 


Cal cium . . 








Electrolytic 


2246.20 


5.40 


Tantalum . . 








Pure 


2246.20 


5.40 


Cerium 








Fused globule 


2246.20 


5.40 


Lithium 








Globules 


2228.76 


4.92 


Lithium 








Wire 


2935.44 


6.48 


Erbium . . 








Fused 


1671.57 


3.96 


Didymium 








a • - 


1630.08 


3.60 


Strontium 








Electrolytic 


1576.44 


3.48 


Indium 








Pure 


1522.08 


3.36 


Ruthenium 








— 


1304.64 


2; 88 


Columbium 








Fused 


1250.28 


2;76 


Rhodium . 








— 


1032.84 


2.28 


Barium 








Electrolytic 


924.12 


2.04 


Thallium . 








_ 


738.39 


1.63 


Osmium 








=_- 


652.32 


1.44 


Palladium 








_ 


498.30 


1.10 


Iridium 








— 


466.59 


1.03 


Uranium . 








— 


434.88 


0.96 


Gold . . 








— . 


299.72 


— 


Titanium . 








Fused 


239.80 


0.52 


Tellurium 








" 


196.20 


0.43 


Chromium 








a 


196.20 


0.43 


Platinum . 








a 


122.31 


0.27 


Manganese 








a 


108.72 


0.24 


Molybdenum 








— 


54.34 


0.12 


Magnesium 








Wire and tape 


45.30 


0.10 


Potassium . 








Globules 


22.65 


0.05 


Silver . 








— 


18.60 


— 


Aluminium 








Bar 


16.30 


0.036 


Cobalt . . 








Cubes 


12.68 


0.028 


Nickel . . 








" 


3.80 


0.008 


Cadmium . 








— 


3.26 


0.007 


Sodium 








— 


3.26 


0.007 


Bismuth . 








Crude 


1.95 


0.0043 


Mercury 








— 


1.00 


— 


Antimony 








— 


0.36 


— 


Tin . . . 








— 


0.25 


— 


Copper 








— 


0.22 


— 


Arsenic 








— 


0.15 


— 


Zinc . . 








— 


0.10 


— 


Lead . . 








— 


0.06 


— 


Iron . . 








— 


0.01£ 


— 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 77 

Many of these prices are, of course, "fancy prices," 
as it would be difficult to obtain a whole pound of some 
of the metals named at even these figures. In compil- 
ing the table the prices of the rarer metals are obtained 
from Trornmsdorff's and Schuchardt's price lists; the 
avoirdupois pound is taken as equal to 453 grammes, 
and the mark as equal to 24 cents gold. 

It is evident that the prices of the metals bear no 
relation to the rarity of the bodies whence they may be 
derived ; for calcium, the third in the list, is one of the 
most abundant elements. Even indium, one of the most 
recently discovered elements, stands tenth in the list 
below strontium. The metals of the alkalies Occupy a 
low place in the table. 



IV. 

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 

From what has been said in the preceding sections, it 
will be seen that the properties of the different metals 
vary very much, and that but few possess properties in 
common, to which expression has been given by arrang- 
ing the allied metals in groups. It will next be neces- 
sary to consider the alterations which in regard to their 
properties certain metals undergo by melting together or 
alloying. The laws of chemistry show that two bodies 
combine the more energetically the more dissimilar they 
are in a chemical respect; and the same law applies also 
in alloying metals. 



78 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

It would be an error to consider all alloys as chemical 
combinations, though there are some which are actually 
such, because we find that the respective metals combine 
with special ease in such proportions as correspond to the 
numbers of the atomic weights, and, further, that these 
compounds crystallize, which would point to an actual 
chemical combination having taken place. 

But in many other instances alloys are simply mix- 
tures, this being principally the case if metals of great 
chemical similarity are combined together, the alloy in 
this case showing always the qualities of a true mixture 
by the predominance of the properties of the metal 
present in largest quantity. 

Mercury combined with certain metals plainly shows, 
for instance, the properties of a chemical compound : 
the mass, at first fluid, solidifies under the evolution of 
heat to a crystalline mass which resists the solvents for 
the constituent metals far better than the metals them- 
selves ; a*proof of the existence of a chemical combina- 
tion even if not especially stable. In many cases the 
difference between the melting points of the alloy and 
the metals constituting it indicates a very intimate union, 
if not the presence of a chemical combination in the 
actual sense of the word. 

On the other hand, alloys prepared from metals re- 
sembling each other chemically may be compared with 
a mixture of two fluids, for instance, of water and 
alcohol, the mixture always exhibiting properties inter- 
mediate between those of its constituents and, in regular 
gradation, according to the quantity of each that may be 
present. Silver and copper, for instance, being metals 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 79 

which chemically are quite closely related, can be melted 
together in all proportions, and the properties of the 
resulting alloys approach nearest those of the metal 
present in greatest quantity. With a predominance o± 
silver the white color prevails and the density of the 
alloy is nearer that of silver, while with a predominance 
of copper the properties of the alloy approach more 
those of that metal. 

In view of the great diversities which show them- 
selves in melting together metals, it is very difficult to 
lay down propositions of general validity in regard to 
the behavior of the various metals to one another, and 
hence the following indications must be considered only 
from a general point of view. 

The physical properties of alloys are different from 
the mean of those of their constituents, the color, hard- 
ness, ductility, melting point, and density of the metals 
being especially altered by melting them together. The 
color of the mixtures frequently varies very much from 
that of the metals used in their preparation, though, as 
a rule, it approaches nearest to that of the metal present 
in greatest quantity. There are, however, some varia- 
tions in this respect; an alloy consisting, for instance, of 
determined proportions of gold, silver, and copper, shows 
a greenish color, which, as is well known, does not ap- 
pertain to any of these metals. 

The ductility and hardness of the metals also undergo 
considerable change in alloying. As a rule the ductility 
decreases, while the hardness compared with that of the 
metals constituting the alloy increases to a considerable 



80 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

extent. A few metals, for instance antimony, possess in 
a high degree the property of making the metals harder. 

The alloys melt, as a rule, at a temperature lower 
than that at which the constituent most difficult to fuse 
becomes fluid. There are, however, some remarkable 
instances of alloys melting at a much lower temperature 
than the mean of the fusing points of their ingredients, 
an alloy of 8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin 
fusing, for instance at the temperature of boiling water, 
although the melting point deduced from the means of 
its constituents is 514° F. 

There is no precise law which gives the relation be- 
tween the specific gravity of an alloy and that of its 
component metals, it being sometimes greater and some- 
times less. In the former case it indicates an approxi- 
mation, and in the latter a separation of the particles 
from one another in the process of alloying. It is com- 
mon among authorities who publish determinations of 
specific gravities of the alloys to give the calculated as 
well as the observed specific gravity. The calculated 
specific gravity is that which the alloy would have if 
there were neither expansion nor condensation of the 
metals during the act of combination. The specific 
gravities should be calculated from the volumes and not 
from the weights. Dr. Ure gives the rule as follows : 
Multiply the sum of the weights into the products of the 
two specific gravity numbers for a numerator, and mul- 
tiply each specific gravity number into the weight of the 
other body, and add the products for a denominater. 
The quotient obtained by dividing the said numerator 
by the denominator is the truly computed mean specific 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



81 



gravity of the alloy. Expressed in algebraic language, 
the above rule is — 

M= (W + u,)Pp 
Pw -f pW 

where M is the mean specific gravity of the alloy, TFand 
w the weights, and P and p the specific gravities of the 
constituent metals. 

The following table of the alloys whose density is 
greater or less than the mean of their constituents is 
given by several writers : — 



Alloys the density of ivhich is 
greater than the mean of 
their constituents. 

Gold and zinc. 

Gold and tin. 

Gold and bismuth. 

Gold and antimony. 

Gold and cobalt. 

Silver and zinc. 

Silver and tin. 

Silver and bismuth. 

Silver and antimony. 

Copper and zinc. 

Copper and tin. 

Copper and palladium. 

Copper and bismuth. 

Lead and antimony. 

Platinum and molybdenum. 

Palladium and bismuth. 



Alloys the density of which is 
less than the mean of their 
constituents. 

■ Gold and silver. 
Gold and iron. 
Gold and lead. 
Gold and copper. 
Gold and iridium. 
Gold and nickel. 
Silver and copper. 
Iron and bismuth. 
Iron and antimony. 
Iron and lead. 
Tin and lead. 
Tin and palladium. 
Tin and antimony. 
Nickel and arsenic. 
Zinc and antimony. 



The tenacity of an alloy is, as a rule, less than that 
of the most tenacious of the component metals, a very 
small quantity of lead, for instance, sufficing to decrease 



82 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the tenacity of gold, which is one of the most tenacious 
of metals. In a few cases, however, the alloy possesses 
a higher degree of tenacity than the constituent metals, 
there being, for instance, an alloy of copper and zinc, 
which is more ductile than copper, though zinc belongs 
to those metals which are distinguished by brittleness 
rather than by ductility. 

The changes taking place in the physical conditions 
in alloying the various metals are, however, not yet 
thoroughly known, and it will, therefore, be necessary 
to mention especially prominent properties in speaking 
of the various alloys. 

In the preceding it has been shown by a few exam- 
ples that the physical properties of alloys diifer very 
essentially from those of their constituent metals. 
This change in their properties extends, however, still 
further, namely, to their chemical behavior. The alloys 
of certain precious metals, for instance, that of platinum 
and iridium, show the remarkable property of being at- 
tacked by acids, to which the pure metals are entirely 
indifferent. The alloys of other metals show similar 
phenomena, which may perhaps be explained by the 
fact that the alloys on coming in contact with an acid 
form, in a certain sense, a galvanic element, electricity, 
as is well known, being developed by two metals being 
brought into contact with an acid. Moreover, it is also 
known that many chemical processes may take place 
under the influence of electricity which otherwise would 
only proceed with difficulty. 

The researches of physicists have explained many of 
the remarkable phenomena in regard to alloys, the phy- 



PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 83 

sical caus$, for instance, why the melting point of many 
of them is lower than that of the most fusible of the 
constituent metals having been sufficiently elucidated. 
But, as regards the change in their chemical properties, 
the question is still unsettled, and though many experi- 
ments have been made to settle it there still remains a 
wide difference of opinion in regard to it. Most writers 
now agree, however, in considering some alloys as chem- 
ical compounds and others as mixtures, but they differ 
as to whether any particular alloy is the one or the 
other. 



V. 

PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 

Alloys are generally prepared by directly melting to- 
gether the metals which are to take part in the mixture. 
At a first glance this would seem a very simple affair, 
requiring scarcely any explanation, but in fact great 
skill and judgment are necessary for the successful ac- 
complishment of the object. Some alloys are in fact 
very difficult to prepare and require special precau- 
tionary measures. 

The utensils used in the manufacture of alloys differ 
according to whether they are to be prepared on a small 
or large scale. For small quantities the use of a cru- 
cible is recommended, but for manufacturing on a large 
scale a reverberatory " open-hearth" furnace is used, 
which is preferably heated with gas prepared in a special 



84 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

furnace. Special precautions must be observed to pre- 
serve a deoxidizing flame within the furnace. A small 
portion of the heat, which otherwise could be used for 
melting the metals, is sometimes lost thereby, but the 
great advantage is gained that as long as the gases of 
combustion passing over the metals absorb oxygen, the 
melting metals will actually remain in a metallic state. 
This is especially of great importance with metals which 
readily oxidize when exposed in a fused state to the ac- 
tion of the air. It may here be remarked that the ox- 
ides formed by careless work from the metals seldom 
take part in the formation of the alloy, so that even 
if the quantities of metals have been accurately weighed 
the resulting alloy will not show the desired composi- 
tion, since the portion of the metals converted into oxide 
does not enter into the alloy. 

For preparing alloys on a smaller scale in a crucible, 
special precautionary measures must be taken against 
oxidation of the metals. For this purpose the surface 
of the metals is covered with bodies which prevent the 
access of air without, however, exerting any influence 
whatever, or at least only to a very small extent, upon 
the metals. In many cases anhydrous borax is used ; 
but independently of the fact that borax is rather expen- 
sive and unnecessarily increases the cost of the alloys, 
its employment is accompanied by many evils. It is 
well known that in borax a portion of the boric acid is 
not perfectly saturated, and that in melting borax with 
base metals a certain portion of the acid is always ab- 
sorbed, which with the sodium borate forms double 
salts of a glassy nature. Hence by fusing metals under 



PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 85 

borax a certain portion of them will be lost by forming 
a combination with the borax. 

Glass consists of a mixture of silicates, and forms, 
when thrown upon fusing metal, a coating which com- 
pletely excludes the access of air to the surface of the 
metal. Though it has also the property of absorbing 
certain metals when brought in contact with them in a 
liquid state, the influence it exerts upon alloys is, gene- 
rally speaking, much less than that exerted by an equal 
quantity of borax. If the metals to be fused together 
are such that a combination with carbon need not be 
feared, the fusing mass can also be protected from the 
influence of the oxygen of the atmosphere by covering 
it with a layer of pulverized charcoal. Many manufac- 
turers are in the habit of throwing a certain quantity of 
fat upon the heated metal before fusion. The fat on 
being suddenly strongly heated decomposes and evolves 
a considerable quantity of gas, which exerts a protecting 
influence upon the surface of the metals. After the 
evolution of gas has ceased, there remains a very finely 
divided carbon which protects the metals from oxida- 
tion. 

For the preparation of alloys from noble or costly 
metals it is recommended to effect the fusion in crucibles 
of graphite or of graphite mixed with clay, as the metal 
readily and completely separates from such crucibles. 
In regard to graphite crucibles we would draw atten- 
tion to a circumstance which, though unimportant in 
itself, may become very disagreeable in preparing alloys 
from costly metals. It sometimes happens that a 
graphite crucible a short time after being placed in the 



86 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

furnace bursts with a loud crack, and the metals contained 
in it fall into the fire from which they have to be rescued 
with considerable trouble. This phenomenon in most 
cases is due to faulty work in the making of the cru- 
cible. If; for instance, the mass of the crucible contains 
a small bubble filled with air or moisture, these bodies 
will expand strongly on heating, and this expansion 
may go so far as to cause the bursting of the crucible. 
But, as this defect cannot be recognized from the appear- 
ance of the crucible, it is recommended to test every 
crucible before using it for melting metals. This is 
done by putting them in a place where they gradually 
become strongly heated. Bad crucibles crack in most 
cases, and the others are sufficiently dried out so that 
they can be used for melting the metals without fear of 
cracking. 

In preparing alloys the metal most difficult to fuse 
should be first melted and the more fusible ones only in- 
troduced after the complete fusion of the first. The 
varying densities of the metals to be combined frequently 
render the formation of a homogeneous mass very diffi- 
cult. Moreover, in many alloys certain chemical com- 
binations are readily formed while the rest of the metals 
form alloys, the preparation of which was not intended. 

If two metals with greatly varying densities are 
alloyed and the mass is allowed to be quiescent, it will 
be observed that, after cooling and taking from the cru- 
cible, it shows clearly perceptible layers varying in cojor 
and appearance. By chemically examining these layers 
it will be found that each of them contains different 
quantities of the metals used in alloying. To obtain in 



PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IX GENERAL. 87 

such, case as homogeneous an alloy as possible, the 
metals, while in a state of fusion, must not be allowed 
to remain quiescent, but an intimate mixture be effected 
by vigorous stirring, sticks of dry soft wood being in 
many cases used for this purpose. By stirring the fused 
mass with one of these sticks, the wood is more or less 
carbonized according to the temperature of the mass. In 
consequence of the dry distillation of the wood taking 
place thereby, there is evolved an abundance of gases 
which, by ascending in the fused mass, contribute to its 
intimate mixture. The stirring should be continued for 
some time and the alloy then cooled as rapidly as pos- 
sible. 

Many alloys possess the property of changing their 
nature by repeated remelting, several alloys being 
formed in this case, which show considerable differences, 
physically as well as chemically. The melting points 
of the new alloys are generally higher than those of the 
original alloy, and their hardness and ductility are also 
changed to a considerable extent. This phenomenon is 
frequently connected with many evils for the further 
application of the alloys, and in preparing alloys show- 
ing this property, the fusion of the metals and subse- 
quent cooling of the fused mass should be effected as 
rapidly as possible. 

While formerly only a few alloys were known, a large 
number are at present used in the industries, and we 
find very rare metals sometimes employed for the prep- 
aration of alloys with special properties. One of the 
principal causes of this advance in the industry is the 
progress of mechanics. We need only to consider the 



88 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

pillow-blocks of shafts and axles in order to understand 
the varying demands made by the engineer as regards 
the properties of alloys. How different must be the 
nature of an alloy which serves for the construction of 
the pillow-block of an axle revolving with a light load 
perhaps once in a second, from that which has to bear a 
heavily-loaded shaft making many revolutions per 
minute ! For many purposes alloys are required excel- 
ling in great ductility, for others the chief requisite is 
hardness, others again must have a high degree of elas- 
ticity, and still others as low a melting point as possible. 
It will be readily understood that these different de- 
mands can only be satisfied by adding to the alloys suit- 
able quantities of metals of varying properties. 

Though most heavy metals are at the present time 
used in the manufacture of alloys, copper, tin, zinc, lead, 
silver and gold are more frequently employed than 
others, the alloys of these metals being at the same 
time those which have been longest known and used. 
In modern times the alloys prepared with the assistance 
of nickel have also become of great importance, as well 
as those of which aluminium forms a constituent. 

Every one who occupies himself more closely with 
alloys knows how meagre is the amount of information 
which has been gained upon this important branch of 
metallurgy, and that much is to be expected from the 
progress of chemistry. The metallurgist, if left to him- 
self, cannot be expected to arrive at certain results, be- 
cause, probably, he may be wanting in chemical know- 
ledge or in the methodical course of investigation, which 
must be possessed by those who are qualified to success- 



PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 89 

fully prosecute such researches. These qualifications 
are so much the more indispensable when it is remem- 
bered that every new alloy, by the fact of its properties 
being different from those of its constituents, may be 
regarded as a new metal. Before proceeding with the 
description of the most important alloys, it may be con- 
venient to say a few words about the best methods of 
making experiments in the preparation of new alloys. 

It is known that the elements always combine with 
one another in certain quantities by weight which are 
termed atomic weights. (A table of the atomic weights 
of the principal metals is found upon page 42.) By 
mixing the metals according to equivalent quantities, 
alloys of determined, characteristic properties are, as a 
rule, obtained. If these properties do not answer the 
demands made of the alloy, the object is frequently at- 
tained by taking two, three, or more equivalents of one 
metal. An exception to this rule is only made in certain 
cases, and especially where, according to experience, a 
very small quantity of a metal suffices considerably to 
change the properties of the alloy. It is then most 
suitable to prepare the mixtures serving for the experi- 
ment according to thousandths, and with every new ex- 
periment change the proportion between the separate 
metals a certain number of thousandths. 

For combining metals with non-metallic elements, for 
instance with sulphur or with phosphorus, it is, how- 
ever, not sufficient to choose the proportions according to 
thousandths, it being necessary to add these bodies ac- 
cording to ten thousandths. For these elements the 
form in which they are used is also of importance, 

8* 



90 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

which, however, will be referred to in speaking of them 
later on. We would, however, here remark that the 
application of the term alloy to such metals, which are, 
so to say, contaminated by phosphorus or sulphur, is en- « 
tirely incorrect. We use it, however, for want of a better 
one, since it at least indicates that we are not dealing 
with a pure metal. 



VI. 

COPPER ALLOYS. 

Although, on account of its great ductility and 
tenacity, the uses of unmixed copper in the arts are 
various and highly important, its employment for many 
purposes is connected with difficulties. It is, for in- 
stance, seldom cast in consequence of the difficulty of 
obtaining sound strong castings, they being always 
blown even if the w r ork is done with the greatest care. 
Besides the properties of the copper itself certain alloys 
of it have others, which render them especially suitable 
for certain industrial purposes, and, moreover, it is pos- 
sible to impart to copper alloys all the properties which 
can be possibly expected : they can be made soft and 
yery hard, brittle and elastic, malleable and non-malle- 
able, etc. 

The manufacture of copper alloys is always attended 
with certain difficulties, since the copper itself has a very 
high fusing point, and the presence of very small quan- 
tities of foreign bodies exerts a great influence upon its 



COPPER ALLOYS. 91 

properties and upon those of its alloys. It will there- 
fore be necessary to say a few words about this influence. 

A content of lead amounting to from T -oVo *° to 8 oo 
somewhat increases the ductility of copper to be rolled ; 
but the presence of one full thousandth of lead renders 
the metal unfit for the preparation of brass, which is to 
be rolled out into sheets or drawn out into wire. By 
adding to copper up to jqVo °f ^ ea( ^; ^ acquires the 
property of being red-short or hot-short, and by increas- 
ing the content of lead to one per cent, it becomes en- 
tirely useless, it being both red-short and cold-short. A 
content of lead always exerts an injurious influence upon 
the properties of copper, this influence being more 
strongly observed at a higher temperature than at an 
ordinary one. 

A content of iron exceeding t ^Vq has also an injurious 
effect upon the properties of copper, rendering it hard 
and brittle. Small quantities of nickel affect copper in- 
juriously in making it less malleable, the evil being 
still further increased if besides this metal a small quan- 
tity of antimony be present. Antimony and arsenic by 
themselves mixed with copper considerably decrease its 
highly-valued property of ductility. Copper containing 
only y'oqg °f antimony can no longer be worked for 
sheet-brass. Bismuth acts in a manner similar to an- 
timony. Zinc mixed with copper up to y^o" ma kes it 
red-short. Certain alloys of copper and zinc can, how- 
ever, be well worked, the most important of such alloys 
being brass. A content of tin and silver seems not to 
have an injurious effect upon the properties of copper, 
and these two metals, if added in certain proportions, 



92 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

give alloys which are distinguished by special valuable 
properties. 

Ad admixture of cuprous oxide, which is sometimes 
found in brands of copper, makes the metal both red- 
short and cold-short, especially if present in larger 
quantities, and ' further imparts to it the disagreeable 
property of considerably contracting in casting. More- 
over, the castings from such copper show an unequal 
density, so that plates of it cannot be used for copper- 
plate printing. It may here be remarked that most 
brands of copper found in commerce contain certain 
quantities of cuprous oxide, it being claimed that an ad- 
mixture of one-half to two per cent, of it is even bene- 
ficial, as it counteracts the injurious influence of foreign 
metals upon the copper. 

Besides the above-mentioned metals, many brands of 
copper found in commerce frequently contain bodies be- 
longing to the non-metals, such as sulphur, silicium, and 
phosphorus. The influence of these bodies is, as a rule, 
very injurious. 

A content of sulphur makes the copper red-short and 
castings of it blown. By a content of silicium the 
copper loses its pure red color and acquires one shading 
into white, its ductility being at the same time consider- 
ably affected. Copper containing nearly two per cent, 
of silicium can only be rolled in the cold, as it cracks 
in the heat. With a still greater content of silicium 
the copper becomes a yellowish-white metal of % extraor- 
dinary brittleness, so that it can no longer be worked to 
advantage. 

A content of phosphorus exerts a considerable influ- 



COPPER ALLOYS. 93 

ence upon the properties of copper, generally increasing 
its hardness and at the same time making it more fusible. 
With an admixture of y^Vo^ of phosphorus the copper 
can only be rolled in the cold, while with a still greater 
content it becomes brittle in the cold. Some alloys of 
copper with phosphorus, known as phosphor-bronze, 
are, however, used for certain industrial purposes on ac- 
count of their special properties, they being distinguished 
by particular tenacity, ductility, and beautiful color. 
These combinations will be referred to later on. 

According to the more recent researches by Hampe, 
copper shows the following behavior towards- admix- 
tures : — 

With a content of between r o 2 o o" an( ^ iii o" °f cuprous 
oxide, the properties of the copper are not sensibly 
affected, it becoming red-short only in the presence of 
T"f o"o ; anc ^ a content of this compound always acts in 
such a manner as to increase the brittleness of the metal 
more in the cold than in the heat. One-thousandth of 
arsenic exerts no influence upon the copper, but T f|^ of 
it render it cold-short and hard. It only becomes red- 
short with y^Q- of arsenic, but is not cold-short, which 
is contrary to the opinions formerly held in regard to 
the influence of arsenic upon copper. Antimony acts 
similar to arsenic, except that a smaller quantity of it is 
required to make the copper red-short. 

A content of one and a half thousandths of lead ex- 
erts no influence upon the properties of copper ; a slight 
brittleness in the heat shows itself, however, with a con- 
tent of j-oVo, which becomes strong with one of j-^-q, 
and is clearly perceptible in the cold. 



94 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

According 'to these more recent researches a content 
of bismuth exerts an especially injurious influence upon 
the properties of copper, an infinitely small quantity 
sufficing to decrease the ductility in the heat, while with 
a content of y/oT ^ ne C0 PP er becomes strongly red- 
short and sensibly cold-short. 

A considerable portion of the copper occurring in 
commerce is extracted from minerals containing a num- 
ber of other metals, this holding especially good in re- 
gard to those brands obtained from gray copper ore or 
fahl ore.* Experts can tell from the external proper- 
ties of the metal, especially by the color, fracture, and 
ductility, whether it is suitable for certain purposes or 
not. But it is, of course, impossible to recognize in this 
manner the quantities of foreign bodies. In buying a 
large lot of copper for alloys it is, therefore, recom- 
mended to subject it to an accurate chemical analysis in 
order to be sure that it is free from lead and bismuth, 
which are especially injurious. 

Formerly copper alloys were considered a mixture of 
the constituent metals, but in modern times they are 
considered from a different point of view, it being the 
generally accepted opinion that definite chemical combi- 
nations are formed from the copper and the foreign metals, 
which dissolve in the excess of metal present and im- 
part certain properties to it. We find, for instance, that 
from alloys consisting of a metal difficult to fuse and 
one with a very low melting point (one of copper and 
zinc for instance) the greater portion of the readily 

*It contains copper, antimony, arsenic, and sulphur. 



COPPER ALLOYS. 95 

fusible metal can be separated by long-continued melt- 
ings a portion of it being, however, retained with such 
tenacity that it cannot be removed. 

As -previously mentioned the number of copper alloys 
is very large, the most important being those with tin, 
zinc, nickel, gold, silver, platinum, and mercury, and, 
further, with aluminium ; the alloys of copper with lead, 
antimony, and iron are less frequently used. 

After giving a brief introductory sketch of the alloys 
of copper with the precious metals, which have been 
used since very remote times, we will first speak of the 
alloys of copper with the base metals, they being of 
special interest for industrial purposes, and, besides, pre- 
sent more technical difficulties in their preparation. 

Auriferous copper alloys. — Gold, as previously men- 
tioned, having but a slight degree of hardness, must be 
alloyed with other metals in order to prevent its wearing 
off too strongly, copper and silver, either by themselves 
or together, being generally used for the purpose. Be- 
sides the fact that the gold alloys show a greater degree 
of hardness than the pure metal, the color of the latter 
is also changed by alloying with silver or copper, there 
being gold with a color shading into white (alloyed with 
silver) and other varieties shading into red (alloyed with 
copper). There is also a green gold which is an alloy 
of gold, silver, and copper. 

According to the purpose for which gold alloys are 
to be used, they are prepared either with copper or silver 
alone or with the assistance of both metals. The gold 
coins of Europe consist always of an alloy of gold with 
copper, a content of silver, which must, however, be 



96 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

very small, being clue to the use of argentiferous gold. 
The preparation of alloys of gold and of silver has be- 
come very extensive on account of them being used for 
coinage and articles of jewelry, and will be referred to 
later on. 

Argentiferous copper alloys. — The alloys of copper 
with silver are extensively used for coinage and silver- 
ware. As may be seen from the properties of both 
metals, these alloys possess a considerable degree of 
ductility, and if the proportions in which the metals are 
mixed are so chosen that the copper slightly predomi- 
nates, their properties are almost exactly a mean between 
those of the two metals. They will be fully discussed 
later on, and we only mention here that most alloys of 
silver and copper contain more of the former than of 
the latter metal. 

The alloys of the other noble metals, especially those 
of the platinum group, find but a limited application in 
the industries ; we will refer to them later on. 

Alloys of copper with the base metals. — Although the 
number of alloys of copper with the base metals is very 
large, those known under the general terms of brass and 
bronze are so extensively used in the various industries' 
as to make most of the others appear unimportant in 
comparison. Bronze has been known from very remote 
times, and was used by the ancients in casting statues 
and other ornaments. The bronze used by the pre-his- 
toric nations contained no lead, and came nearest to what 
is at the present time designated by the term bronze, i. <?., 
an alloy of copper and tin. The bronze used by the 
Romans and post-Komans was rarely an alloy of pure 



BEASS, ITS PEOPEETIES, ETC. 97" 

copper and tin, but contained usually more or less 
lead. 

Brass, the other important alloy of copper mentioned 
above, was manufactured by cementing sheets of copper 
with calamine or carbonate of zinc long before zinc in 
a metallic form was known. 



VII. 

BRASS, ITS PROPERTIES, MANUFACTURE, AND 

USES. 

The several compounds produced by the combination 
of copper and zinc in different proportions are included 
in the collective term brass, some varieties, however, 
being known by specific names, as pinchbeck, tourbac, 
etc. The first account of the alloy of copper and zinc 
transmitted to the present times was written by Aristotle, 
who states that a people who inhabited a country ad- 
joining the Euxine Sea prepared their copper of a 
beautiful white color by mixing and cementing it with 
an earth found there and not with tin, as was apparently 
the custom. Strabo also alludes to the preparation of 
the alloy of copper and zinc by the Phrygians from the 
calcination of certain earths found in the neighborhood 
of Anclera, and other authors, in the time of Augustus, 
speak distinctly of cadmia and its property of convert- 
ing copper into aurichahum, under which title the zinc 
alloy was subsequently known. Several writers of the 
Christian era who have referred to this compound are 



98 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

not more explicit than their predecessors ; still it is evi- 
dent, from various recent analyses of old alloy s, that 
zinc was contained in many of those prepared about the 
commencement of the present era. 

The manufacture of brass was introduced in 1550 in 
Germany by Erasmus Ebener, an artist of Niirnberg, 
who prepared it by fusing copper with so-called tutia 
fornacem or furnace cadmia. By direct melting to- 
gether of the two metals, the alloy was very likely first 
obtained in 1781 in England, where the art of obtaining 
the zinc in a metallic form became known a short time 
previously to that period. 

Brass, as already mentioned, should actually con- 
tain only copper and zinc, but most varieties found in 
commerce contain small quantities of iron, tin, arsenic, 
and lead. In many cases these admixtures are due to 
contaminations mixed with the ores from which the 
copper or zinc is extracted, while in others they have 
been intentionally added in order to change the duc- 
tility, fusibility, etc. of the alloy. Copper and zinc can 
be mixed together within very wide limits, the resulting 
alloys being always serviceable. Generally speaking, it 
may be said that with an increase in the percentage of 
copper the color inclines more towards a golden, the 
malleability and softness of the alloy being increased at 
the same time. With an increase in the percentage of 
zinc, the color becomes lighter and lighter, and finally 
shades into a grayish-white, while the alloys become 
more fusible, brittle, and at the same time harder. Just 
as different as the properties of the respective alloys is 
also the cost of production, the price of brass increasing 



BRASS, ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 99 

with the greater percentage of copper. Very extensive 
researches have been made in regard to the behavior of 
alloys of copper and zinc, which may be briefly expressed 
as follows : — 

An alloy containing from 1 to 7 per cent, of zinc still 
shows the color of copper or at the utmost only a slight 
yellow tinge. With 7.4 to 13.8 per cent, of zinc the 
color of the alloy undergoes a considerable change, it 
being a pleasant red-yellow. With from 13.8 to 16.6 
per cent, the color may be designated a pure yellow, 
while that of alloys containing up to 30 per cent, of 
zinc is also yellow, but not pure. It is a singular fact 
that with a content of over 30 per cent, of zinc a red 
color appears again, which is most pronounced with 
equal parts by weight of the metals, an alloy of 50 
parts of copper and 50 of zinc having almost a golden 
color, but exhibiting also a high degree of brittleness. 
With a still higher percentage of zinc the gold color 
rapidly decreases, becoming reddish-white with 53 per 
cent., yellowish-white with 56 per cent., and bluish- 
white with 64 per cent. ; with a still higher content of 
zinc the alloy acquires a lead color. 

The physical properties of alloys of copper and zinc 
differ very much according to the quantities of copper 
and zinc contained in them. Alloys containing up to 
35 per cent, of zinc can only be converted into wire or 
sheet in the cold, those with from 15 to 20 per cent, 
being the most ductile. 

Alloys with from 36 to 40 per cent, of zinc can be 
worked in the cold as well as in the heat. With a still 
higher percentage the ductility decreases rapidly, and an 



100 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

alloy with, for instance, from 60 to 70 per cent, of zinc 
is so brittle that it cannot be worked. If, however, the 
content of zinc is increased up to a maximum (70 to 90 
per cent.), the ductility increases again and the alloy can 
be worked quite well in the heat (but not at a red heat). 

Brass shows always a crystalline structure, which is 
the more pronounced the more brittle the alloy is, and 
hence that prepared from equal parts of copper and 
zinc shows the most distinct crystalline structure. 

In connection with this some researches in regard to 
metals becoming crystalline, made by S. Kalischer,* may 
be of interest. By heating rolled zinc to from 302° to 
338° F., it suffers a series of permanent changes with- 
out its external appearance being directly altered. It 
loses its clear sound and becomes almost without sound, 
like lead. It can be more readily bent, but breaks more 
easily, and in bending emits a noise similar to the "cry 
of tin." All these alterations are due to a change in the 
molecular structure of the zinc ; it becomes crystalline. 
This crystallization can be readily rendered perceptible 
by dipping a heated strip of zinc into a solution of sul- 
phate of copper, the copper, which is immediately pre- 
cipitated, showing clearly perceptible crystallization. 
The fracture of the rolled and heated zinc is also crys- 
talline. To avoid this change it is recommended not to 
exceed a temperature of 266° F. in manufacturing 
sheet-zinc. Sheets of cadmium and of tin become crys- 
talline at about 392° F. Sheet-iron and sheet-copper 
are also crystalline, but sheet-steel is not. Kalischer 

* Carl's Repert., 1882, p. 193. 



BRASS, ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 101 

as 



examined four varieties of sheet-brass constituted 
follows : — 

Parts. 


I. 

Copper . . . . 66 
Zinc . . . .34 


II. III. IV. 

62.5 60 56.8 
37.5 40 43.2 



Samples Nos. I. and II. were undoubtedly crystalline, 
and sample No. III. showed traces of crystallization, 
while No. IV. did not become crystalline even by 
heating. 

Sheets of tombac composed of — 

Parts. 

L~ 
Copper 
Zinc 
Tin .... 

were all crystalline. No crystallization could be ob- 
served in bronze-sheets composed of — 

Parts. 



Copper 

Zinc 

Tin 



I. 


II. 


III. 


73.74 


80.38 


90.09 


25.96 


19.29 


9.91 


0.30 


0.33 


— 



I. 


II. 


90 


88.23 


5 


8.82 


5 


2.95 



Rolled lead is crystalline, but rolled fine silver and 
gold are not. By reason of these observations and ex- 
periments Kalischer is of the opinion that the crystalline 
state is natural to most metals of which they can be 
deprived by mechanical influences, but many can be 
reconverted into it under the influence of heat. 

If a very ductile brass is to be prepared, great care 
must be had to use metals of the utmost purity, since 



102 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

exceedingly small admixtures of foreign metals suffice 
considerably to injure the ductility, rendering the fabri- 
cation of very thin sheets or fine wire impossible. 

The tenacity of brass, as shown by many experiments, 
is also intimately connected with its composition, that 
containing about 28.5 per cent, of zinc showing the 
greatest absolute tenacity. The tenacity depends, how- 
ever, to a considerable extent, also on the mechanical 
treatment the metal has received. A piece of brass of 
0.001 square inch breaks with the following loads :- — 

Cast Lrass breaks with 2777.5 pounds. 

Ordinary wire " 7293 

Hand-drawn thin wire " 90S0.5 " 

Annealed thin wire " 7100 to 8628 " 

The molecular structure of brass can be much changed 
by treatment, it becoming more brittle by continuous 
manipulation, so that in drawing wires they must be 
frequently annealed to prevent them from becoming 
brittle. If brass is strongly heated and rapidly cooled, 
its hardness decreases, its behavior in this respect being 
opposite to that of steel. Brass which, for instance, as 
a constituent of machines, is subjected to repeated shocks 
becomes brittle and fragile. 

A very important factor in brass is its melting point, 
there being great deviations in this respect, which are 
readily explained by the great difference in the melting 
points of the two constituent metals. Generally speak- 
ing, the fusing point of brass lies at about 1832° F. If 
brass in a fused state is kept for some time in contact 
with air, its composition undergoes an essential change 
by the combustion of the greater portion of the zinc con- 



BRASS, ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 103 

tained in it, which explains the change of color frequently 
observed in brass fused for some time in contact with air. 

Old copper derived from worn-out copper articles is 
frequently used in the manufacture of brass. Such cop- 
per contains, however, generally foreign metals in the 
shape of solder, etc., which may exert either a favorable 
or an injurious influence upon the properties of the brass. 
Lead, tin, and iron are the most frequently occurring 
contaminations. If the brass is to be used for castings, 
their injurious influence is not so great as in the manu- 
facture of thin sheet or wire. To brass intended for 
castings up to two per cent, of lead is frequently added, 
such addition making the alloy somewhat harder, and 
depriving it at the same time of the disagreeable prop- 
erty of fouling the tools in working, which is of special 
importance in filing and turning. In casting brass con- 
taining lead care must, however, be had to cool the cast- 
ings very rapidly, as otherwise the lead readily separates 
in the lower portion of the casting and produces un- 
sightly spots. 

By a slight addition of tin the brass becomes more 
fusible, somewhat denser, and takes a better polish ; it 
is also rendered somewhat less brittle. The presence of 
a small quantity of iron increases the hardness of brass 
considerably, such brass on exposure to the air being, 
however, easily stained by rust. 

In the arts brass is commonly employed in the con- 
struction of scientific apparatus, mathematical instru- 
ments, small parts of machinery, and for many other 
purposes. A distinction is generally made between sheet 
brass used in the manufacture of wire and sheets, and 



104 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



cast-brass which requires no further mechanical manipu- 
lation than turning and filing. A number of alloys 
occur in commerce under various names, but, as regards 
their composition, they must be included in the generic 
term, brass, though some of them are especially adapted 
for certain purposes. 

In the following we give Mallet's table of the prop- 
erties of copper-zinc alloys : — 















Or 


der of- 




Atomic 


Copper. 


Specific 


Color. 


Fracture. 


Tenacity. 








compo- 








sition. 




gravity. 








Mallea- 
bility. 


Hard- 
ness. 


Fusi- 
bility. 




By anal. 








Tous per 








Cu Zn 


per ct. 








sq. in. 








1 : 


100 


8.667 


red 


— 


24 6 


8 


22 


15 


10 : 1 


98.S0 


S.605 


red-yellow 


coarse 


12.1 


6 


21 


14 


9 : 1 


90.72 


8.607 


'" 


fine 


11.5 


4 


20 


13 


S : 1 


88.60 


S.633 


" 


" 


12.S 


2 


19 


12 


7 : 1 


87.30 


8.587 


" 


" 


13.2 





IS 


11 


6 : 1 


85.40 


8.591 


yellow-red 


fine fibre 


11.1 


5 


17 


10 


5 : 1 


S3. 02 


8 415 


" 


" 


13.7 


11 


16 


9 


4 : 1 


79 65 


8.418 


" 


" 


14.7 


7 


15 


S 


3 : 1 


74.58 


8.397 


pale yellow 


<< 


13.1 


10 


14 


7 


2 : 1 


66.18 


S.299 


deep yellow 


" 


12.5 


3 


13 


6 


1 : 1 


49.47 


S.230 


" 


coarse 


9.2 


12 


12 


6 


1 : 2 


32.85 


S.263 


dai-k yellow 


" 


19.3 


1 


10 


6 


8 : 17 


31.52 


7.721 


silver white 


" 


2.1 


very 
brittle 


5 


5 


S : IS 


30 36 


7.836 


" 


" 


2.2 


" 


6 


5 


8 : 19 


29.17 


7.019 


light gray 


" 


0.7 


" 


7 


5 


8 :20 


28.12 


7.603 


ash-gray 


vitreous 


3.2 


brittle 


3 


5 


8 :21 


27.10 


S.058 


ligh t gray 


coarse 


0.9 


" 


9 


5 


8 : 22 


26.24 


7.882 


ic 


11 


0.8 


" 


1 


5 


8 : 23 


25.39 


7.443 


ash-gray 


" 


5.9 


slightly 
ductile 


1 


5 


1 : 3 


24.50 


7.449 


" 


" 


3.1 


brittle 


2 


4 


1 : 4 


19.65 


7.371 


" 


" 


1.9 


" 


4 


3 


1 : 5 


16.36 


6.605 


dark gray 


" 


l.S 


" 


11 


2 


: 1 





6.895 






15.2 




23 


1 



In the above table the minimum of hardness and 
fusibility is denoted by 1. 

Sheet-brass (for the manufacture of sheets and wire). — 
Especially pure copper has to be used in the preparation 



BRASS, ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 



105 



of brass to be suitable for the manufacture of wire. That 
the use of pure copper is the principal requisite in the 
manufacture of good, ductile brass is best seen from the 
great difference in the composition of the various kinds 
of brass, which all answer their purpose, but contain 
very varying quantities of copper and zinc. The fol- 
lowing table gives the composition of excellent qualities 
of brass suitable for the fabrication of sheet and wire : — 



Brass. 


Place of derivation. 


Copper. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


Tin. 






Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Sheet 


Jemmappes 


64.6 


33.7 


1.4 


0.2 


a 


Stolberg 


64.8 


32.8 


2.0 


0.4 


a 


Romilly . 


70.1 


29.26 


0.38 


0.17 


" 


Rosthorn (Vienna) . 


68.1 


31.9 


— 


— 


(< 


" 


71.5 


28.5 


— 


— 


u 


a 


71.10 


27.6 


1.3 


— 


a 


Iserlohn & Romilly 


70.1 


29.9 


— . 


— 


a 


Ludenscheid . 


72.73 


27.27 


— 


— 


a 


(Brittle) . 


63.66 


33.02 


2.52 


— 


a 


Hegermiihl 


70.16 


27.45 


0.79 


0.20 


a 


Oker 


68.98 


29.54 


0.97 


— 


Wire 


England 


70.29 


29.26 


0.28 


0.17 


C( 


Augsburg 


71.89 


27.63 


0.85 


— 


a 


Neustadt 


70.16 


27.45 


0.2 


0.79 


a 


a 


71.36 


28.15 


— 


— 


a 


a 


71.5 


28.5 


— 


— 


a 


" 


71.0 


27.6 


— 


— 


u 


(Good quality) 


65.4 


34.6 


— 


— 


u 


(Brittle) 


65.5 


32.4 


2.1 


— 




(For wire and sheet) 


67 


32 


0.5 


0.5 



The various kinds of brass contain, according to the 
above table, between 27 and 34 per cent, of zinc, but 
more recently alloys with a somewhat greater content 
of zinc are used, it having been found that the tough- 



106 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ness and ductility of the brass are thereby increased 
without injury to its tenacity. 

Alloys containing up to 37 per cent, of zinc possess a 
high degree of ductility in the cold and are well adapted 
for the manufacture of wire and sheet. 

Cast-brass being used for the most diverse purposes 
it is difficult to give a composition of general value, 
since the demands made on this metal vary much ac- 
cording to the article to be manufactured, it being used 
for very ordinary wares, such as locks, keys, shields, 
escutcheons, buttons, hinges, etc., as well as for the 
finest mechanical instruments and objects of art. 

As a rule cast-brass contains more zinc than that 
which is to be worked into sheet and wire. It is there- 
fore more fusible, but at the same time harder and more 
brittle than wire-brass. The materials being not chosen 
with such great care, as for wire, a chemical analysis re- 
veals frequently the presence of a considerable number 
of foreign metals. The turnings, chips, and other 
brass-waste are generally utilized by melting them to- 
gether by themselves or as addition in fusing cast-brass. 
Such turnings, etc., frequently containing, besides brass,, 
iron and bronze, explain the contamination of the cast- 
brass with iron, tin, and lead ; sometimes a small quan- 
tity of arsenic is also found. Cast-brass is also much 
used in the manufacture of the so-called hard solder for 
soldering articles exposed to a high temperature. In 
the following we give an analysis of various kinds of 
cast-brass, which shows the great variations in its com- 
position : — 



BRASS, ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 



107 



Variety. 


Copper. 


Zinc. 


Iron. 


Lead. 


Tiu. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Cast brass from Oker 


71.88 


24.42 


2.32 


1.09 


__ 


(c k (< 


64.24 


37.27 


0.12 


0.59 


— 


Black Forest clock wheels 


60.66 


36.88 


0.74 


— 


1.35 


" " " 


66.06 


31.46 


1.43 


0.88 


— 


Cast brass from Iserlolm 


63.7 


33.5 


— 


0.3 


2.5 


a (( a 


64.5 


32.4 


— 


2.9 


0.2 


French yellow brass 












(Potin jaune) . . 


71.9 


24.9 


— 


20 


1.2 


English sterling metal 


66.2 


33.11 


0.66 


2.0 


— 


C< (( (< 


66.66 


26.66 


0.66 


— 


— 



Ordinary cast-brass (potin jaune, potin gris, sterling 
metal). — The mixture of metals known under these 
names is the poorest quality of brass, and its compo- 
sition varies so much as to make it impossible to state 
it within narrow limits. This quality of brass is gene- 
rally prepared by fusing together old brass and brass- 
waste of all kinds and subjecting it to a casting test. 
If the fracture is not too coarse-grained and the metal 
not too brittle, it is used without further addition for 
articles known under the collective term of brazier's 
ware (spigots, candlesticks, mortars, etc.). Brass of this 
quality is readily worked with the file, but difficult to 
turn. 

By adding to ordinary cast-brass a certain quantity 
of lead and tin, a metal of a somewhat whiter color 
is obtained, which is called potin gris by the French, 
and is more easily worked with the lathe and file. 
The so-called "sterling metal" is somewhat harder in 
consequence of a content of iron, and can therefore be 
much better worked than ordinary brass. By adding to 



108 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

sterling metal some tin, it acquires still greater hard- 
ness and takes a good polish. 

Fine cast-brass. — Brass to be suitable for the manu- 
facture of fine articles must, besides being readily 
worked with file and chisel, possess other properties of 
great importance in the manufacture of such articles. It 
should allow of being readily cast and fill the moulds 
exactly. Further, articles of luxury manufactured from 
brass are frequently to be gilded, and experience has 
shown that brass of a beautiful color approaching that 
of gold requires less gold for the purpose than brass of 
an unsightly pale-yellow color. In order to be enabled 
to save gold it is, therefore, of importance to manufacture 
the alloy so as to show a color shading into reddish. 
Generally speaking, such alloys contain from 20 to 50 
parts of zinc to 100 parts of copper; lead or tin, or 
both, in the proportion of 0.25 to 3 per cent, of each 
metal being added according to the purpose for which 
the alloy is to be used. In the following we give the 
compositions of several alloys which have stood a prac- 
tical test in this respect. 

Hamilton's metal, mosaic gold, chrysorin. — The alloys 
known under the above names have a very beautiful 
color closely resembling that of gold, and are distin- 
guished by a very fine grain, which makes them espe- 
cially suitable for the manufacture of casting to be sub- 
sequently gilded. The alloys are, as a rule, composed 
of copper 100 parts, zinc 50 to 55. 

In order to obtain a thoroughly homogeneous mixture 
of the two metals it is recommended first to bring into the 
crucible one-half of the zinc to be used, place upon this 



BRASS, ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 



109 



the copper, and fuse the mixture under a cover of borax 
at as low a temperature as possible. When the contents 
of the crucible are liquid, heat the other half of the 
zinc cut in small pieces until almost melted, and throw 
them into the crucible in portions ; stir constantly to 
effect as intimate a mixture of the metals as possible. 

French cast-brass for fine castings. — As is well known 
the bronze industry has reached a high degree of per- 
fection in France, where clock-cases, statuettes, and 
other articles of luxury are manufactured on a large 
scale. The so-called bronze used for these articles is, 
however, in most cases not actual bronze but fine cast- 
brass. In the following table we give the compositions 
of a few mixtures of metals generally used by the 
French manufacturers. They can be readily cast, 
worked with file and chisel, and easily gilt. 





Parts. 




I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


Copper . . . 
Zinc .... 
Tin .... 
Lead .... 


63.70 

33. 5 5 

2.50 

0.25 


64.45 
32.44 

0.25 
2.86 


70.90 

24.05 

2.00 

3.05 


72.43 

22.75 

1.S7 

2.95 



Bristol Bra** (Prince's Metal). 

The alloy known by this name possesses properties 
similar to those of the above-mentioned French varieties 
of brass, and can be prepared according to the following 
proportions : — 

10 



I. 


II. 


III. 


75.7 


62.2 


60.8 


24.3 


32.8 


39.2 



110 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Copper . 
Zinc 

Regarding the preparation of this and similar alloys 
the same holds good which has been said under Hamil- 
ton's metal. 

Malleable brass, Muntz metal, yellow metal, etc. — These 
alloys possess the valuable property of being ductile in 
the heat, and castings prepared from them can be worked 
warm like iron. 

Yellow metal — This metal possesses the property of 
being less attacked by sea- water than pure copper, and 
it was formerly much used for ship-sheathing and in the 
manufacture of nails and rivets coming in contact with 
sea-water. Since the introduction of iron as material 
for larger vessels it has, however, lost some of its former 
importance. 

Yellow metal or Muntz metal (so called after its inven- 
tor) consists generally of copper 60 to 62 parts, zinc 40 
to 38. 

The metal is prepared with the observance of certain 
precautionary measures in order to obtain it with as 
uniform a grain as possible, experience having shown 
that only fine-grained alloys of uniform density can 
resist the sea- water. To obtain as uniform a grain as 
possible small samples taken from the fused mass are 
quickly cooled and examined as to fracture. If the 
latter does not show the desired uniform grain, some 
zinc is added to the fused mass. After its distribution 
through the entire mass a fresh sample is. taken and 
tested, this being continued until the desired object is 



BRASS, ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. ' 111 

attained. It need scarcely be mentioned that consider- 
able experience is required to tell the correct composi- 
tion of the alloy from the fracture. The mass is finally 
poured into moulds and rolled cold. 

Machtfs yellow metal. — This alloy, consisting of copper 
33 parts and zinc 25, has a dark golden-yellow color, 
great tenacity, and can be forged at a red heat, proper- 
ties which make it especially suitable for fine castings. 

Bobierre's metal, consisting of copper 66 parts and zinc 
34, is claimed to be especially suitable for ship-sheathing. 

From experiments made in regard to malleable brass 
it has been learned that all alloys containing up to 58.33 
per cent, of copper and up to 41.67 per cent, of zinc are 
malleable. There is, however, a second group of such 
alloys with 61.54 per cent, of copper and 38.46 per cent, 
of zinc, which are also malleable in the heat. The pre- 
paration of these alloys requires, however, considerable 
experience, and is best effected by melting the metals 
together in the ordinary manner, and heating the fused 
mass as strongly as possible ; it must, however, be 
covered with a layer of charcoal-dust to prevent oxida- 
tion of the zinc. By the mass becoming thinly fluid an 
intimate mixture of the constituent parts is effected. 
Small pieces of the same alloy previously prepared are 
then thrown into the liquid mass until it no longer 
shows a reflecting surface, when it is cast into ingots in 
iron moulds. The ingots while still red hot are thrown 
into water, acquiring by this treatment the highest degree 
of ductility. The alloy properly prepared must show a 
fibrous fracture and have a reddish-yellow color. 

AicJvs metal. — This alloy, named after its inventor, 



112 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

consists of a brass to which a considerable degree of 
tenacity has been imparted by an addition of iron. It 
is especially adapted for purposes where the use of a 
hard and, at the same time, tenacious metal is required. 

According to analyses of various kinds of this metal, 
it shows, like other alloys, considerable variations in the 
quantity of the metals used in its preparation. Even 
the content of iron to which the hardening effect must 
be ascribed may vary within wide limits without the 
tenacity, which is the principal property of this alloy, 
being modified to a considerable extent. 

The best alloy, which can be called an Aiclr\s metal, 
is composed of copper 60 parts, zinc 38.2, iron 1.8. 
The content of iron must be limited to from 0.4 to 3.0 
per cent. Another Aich's metal showing excellent 
properties is composed of copper 60.2 parts, zinc 38.2, 
iron 1.6. 

The chief property of Aich ? s metal is its hardness, 
which is claimed to be not inferior to that of certain 
k i nds of steel. It has a beautiful golden-yellow color and 
is said to oxidize with difficulty, which makes it of great 
value for articles exposed to the action of air and water. 

Steiro-7)ietal. — The properties of this alloy approach 
closely those, of Aich's metal, it consisting, like it, of an 
alloy of copper, zinc, and iron, but containing a larger 
quantity of the latter. The composition of the alloy 
may vary considerably, a little tin being sometimes 
added. W<> give in the following an analysis of two 
varieties of sterro-metal of excellent quality: — 

Sterro-metal from Rosthorn's factory in Lower Aus- 
tria. — ( lopper 55.33 parts, zinc 41.80, iron 4.66. 



BRASS, ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 113 

English sterro-metal (Gedge!s alloy for sheathing for 
. — Copper 60 parts, zinc 38.125, iron 1.5. 

The principal value of this alloy is its great strength, 
in which it is not surpassed by the best steel. While a 
wrought-iron pipe broke with a pressure of 267 atmo- 
spheres, a similar pipe of sterro-metal stood the enormous 
pressure of 763 atmospheres without cracking. Besides 
its strength it also possesses a high degree of elasticity, 
and on account of these properties is especially adapted 
for cylinders of hydraulic presses. As is well known 
these cylinders begin to sweat at a certain pressure, i. e., 
the pressure in the interior is so great that the water 
permeates through the pores of the steel. With a cylin- 
der of sterro-metal the pressure can be considerably 
increased without the exterior of the cylinder showing 
any moisture. 

According to the purpose for which it is to be used, 
the sterro-metal can be made especially hard and dense, 
but this change in its properties is less effected by alter- 
ing the chemical composition than by mechanical manip- 
ulation. 

If cast sterro-metal be rolled or hammered in the heat, 
it acquires, besides strength, an exceedingly high degree 
of tenacity. In hammering the metal special care must 
be had not to overheat it, as otherwise it easily becomes 
brittle and cracks under the hammer. 

A sterro-metal containing copper 55.04, zinc 42.36, 
tin 0.83, and iron 1.77 was tested by Baron de Rosthorn, 
of Vienna, and gave the following results : — * 

* Holley: " Ordnance and Armor." 
10* 



114 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 





Tenacity. 


Material. 


Lbs. per square 
inch. 


Kilogrammes per 
sq. centimetre. 


Sterro-rnetal cast 
" " forged 
" " cold drawn 

Gun-bronze cast . 


60,480 
76,160 
85,120 
40,320 


4252 
5354 
5984 
2834 



The specific gravity of this metal was 8.37 to 8.40 
when forged or wire-drawn ; it has great elasticity, 
stretching 0.0017 without set, and costs 30 to 40 per 
cent, less than gun-bronze. It has been forged into 
guns, cold from the casting. 

Of the mixtures of metals termed brass, the alloys 
given in the preceding are the most important used in 
the industries. It will, of course, be understood that 
they by no means exhaust the number of alloys which 
can be included in the generic term, brass, that number 
being so large that it can scarcely be enumerated. In 
examining a variety of brass small variations in its 
quantitative con^osition can always be observed. No 
matter how small these variations may be, they never- 
theless exert a great influence upon the physical prop- 
erties of the respective alloys, so that an alloy differing 
but little in its chemical composition from another one, 
may nevertheless vary very much from it in regard to 
its physical qualities. Many manufacturers are of the 
opinion that the physical properties of the alloys are 
also largely influenced by the mode of manufacture, and 
those whose products are specially distinguished by 



MANUFACTURE OF BRASS. 115 

great uniformity always work according to a determined 
method. Hence the manufacture of brass is of equal 
importance with the composition of the alloys. 



VIII. 

MANUFACTURE OF BRASS. 

Before zinc was known in the metallic form, brass, 
as previously mentioned, was prepared by fusing cop- 
per together with zinciferous ores, as calamine or car- 
bonate of zinc, as well as with cadmia, the zinc reduced 
by this process combining with the copper to an alloy. 
As is well known, the chemical composition of even the 
purest ores from the same locality always varies some- 
what, and it is not possible with the use of zinc ores to 
obtain a mixture of metals of determined properties 
and general uniformity. Manufacturers working ac- 
cording to this old method must, therefore, on the one 
hand, use very uniform zinc ore, and on the other pos- 
sess a thorough knowledge of the properties of brass, 
so as to be able to tell, from the color and fracture of a 
sample of the fused mass, whether, the alloy possesses 
the requisite qualities or whether it requires the addi- 
tion of a further quantity of zinc ore or of copper. 
Though the manufacture of brass with the use of zinc 
ores is less expensive than the fusion of the pure metals, 
it is at present carried on in very few places, because 
the more modern process is connected with less difficulty, 
and an entirely new uniform product is obtained with 



116 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

greater ease. For the sake of completeness we will 
briefly describe this antiquated process of manufacturing 
brass. 

A. Manufacture of brass according to the old method 
with the use of zinciferous ores. — Before the ores can be 
melted they have to be subjected to a preparatory treat- 
ment in order to remove, as much as possible, admixtures 
of foreign metals (lead, arsenic, antimony) which would 
have an injurious effect upon the quality of the brass. 
The native calamine, after being calcined in order to 
expel the sulphur, is ground in a mill, the galena con- 
tained in it is removed by washing, and it is then mixed 
at the same time with about one-fourth of charcoal. 
This mixture is put into large cylindrical crucibles with 
alternate layers of granulated copper. Powdered char- 
coal is then thrown over the whole and the crucibles are 
covered and luted up. The old form of furnace was a 
cone with the base downwards and the apex cut off 
horizontally. The crucibles were placed upon a circular 
grate or perforated iron plate upon the bottom, with a 
sufficient quantity of fuel thrown around them, and a 
perforated cover made of bricks or clay was fitted to 
the mouth, which served as a register to regulate the 
heat. After the alloy is supposed to be formed (the 
time varying from 10 to 20 hours, according to the na- 
ture of the calamine and the size of the crucibles), the 
heat is increased so as to fuse the whole down into one 
mass. The till is then thrown up, and a workman, 
standing over the opening, grasps the crucible between 
the jaws of a pair of tongues and lifts it out of the fur- 
nace. The refuse is skimmed off and another workman 



MANUFACTURE OF BRASS. 117 

then seizes the crucible with a pair of tongs and pours 
the contents into iron moulds, guiding the stream with 
an iron rod. During this process there is a considerable 
combustion of zinc, the metal burning with its charac- 
teristic blue flame. When the material is good a single 
fusion is sufficient, but the finer sorts undergo a second 
fusion with fresh calamine and charcoal. 

The crude brass may show several defects in regard 
to its composition. It may either contain too much zinc 
or copper, or the reduction of the zinc may not have 
proceeded in a complete manner. In such cases it is 
possible to improve the alloy by a corresponding ad- 
dition of copper, zinc ore, or charcoal, and by again 
fusing it. Sometimes pieces of brass or metallic zinc 
are also added. 

B. Manufacture of brass by fusing the metals together. 
— At the first glance this would appear to be a very 
simple operation ; it is, however, connected with many 
difficulties, and considerable skill is required to produce 
brass answering determined demands in regard to fusi- 
bility, tenacity, etc. In most factories the fusion of the 
metals is still effected in crucibles heated in reverbera- 
tory furnaces. For many years experiments have been 
made to do away with the crucibles and effect the fusion 
of the metals directly in special furnaces. It is evident 
that such a process of production would be considerably 
cheaper, as there would be no expense for crucibles and 
the consumption of fuel be considerably less. The use 
of a furnace in which the metals could be melted down 
in large quantities would have the further advantage of 



118 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

obtaining at one operation a large quantity of brass of 
the same quality. 

The results of experiments made in this direction 
have, however, been so unsatisfactory as to force a re- 
turn to the older and more expensive method of fusion 
in crucibles. The general introduction of furnaces for 
melting down the brass cannot, however, be considered 
as entirely abandoned, as the technical difficulties in the 
way will, no doubt, be overcome before long. More re- 
cently experiments on a large scale have again been in- 
stituted by well-known manufacturers, which hold out 
a hope of final success. For the present we must, how- 
ever, confine ourselves to a description of the best con- 
structions of furnaces for crucibles. 

The manner of constructing these furnaces depends 
chiefly on the fuel to be used (coal, coke) and on the num- 
ber of crucibles to be placed in the furnace at one time. 
Generally speaking, the furnaces for a certain kind of fuel 
agree in most respects, the variations being chiefly in 
the arrangement of the crucibles in the furnace and the 
manner of distributing the flame around them. 

We first give a description of a furnace especially 
adapted for the use of coke. 

The furnace, Figs. 1 and 2, consists of a vault of re- 
fractory material and is about 3J feet high. On the 
narrowest place of the vault is an aperture through 
which the furnace communicates with a well-drawing 
chimney. The plate upon which the crucibles for melt- 
ing the brass stand has seven apertures so arranged that 
six of them are in the periphery of a circle, while the 
seventh forms the centre of the circle. Between these 



MANUFACTURE OF BRASS. 



119 



larger apertures serving for the reception of the cruci- 
bles are smaller ones, which admit the air from below 



Figs. 1 and 2. 




into the furnace. The bottom plate consists of a thick 
cast-iron plate coated with a layer of fire-clay. The six 
crucibles standing on the periphery of the circle have a 
height of 1.18 feet, with an upper diameter of 0.65 foot, 
which corresponds to a bottom diameter of 0.55 foot. 



120 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



The crucible sitting in the centre hole is called the 
king crucible, and being more exposed to the heat is 
generally somewhat larger; it is, as a rule, 1.18 feet 
high with an upper diameter of 0.75 foot. The smaller 
crucibles hold about 92 to 97 pounds of metal and the 
king crucible about 132 pounds. 

Fig. 3. , 




Fio-. 3 shows another construction of a brass furnace. 
As will be seen from the illustration, the space in which 



MANUFACTURE OF BE ASS. 



121 



the crucibles are placed has the form of two truncated 
cones touching each other with the basis, a shaft being 
thus formed in which less fuel is consumed than in a 
furnace having the form of a cylinder. In place of coke 
charcoal may be used in this furnace, if the local condi- 
tions are such as to allow of its employment without in- 
creasing the cost of the brass. 

In the preparation of plate-brass the fused metal has 
to be cast in special moulds to solidify. It m however, 

Fig. 4. 




of importance that this solidification should not take 
place too rapidly, as otherwise the properties of the 
brass might be injured. To prevent too rapid cooling 



ii 



122 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the moulds serving for the reception of the fused mass 
are strongly heated, special furnaces having been con- 
structed for the purpose, in which the gases escaping 
from the actual melting space are utilized for heating 
the moulds. Fig. 4 shows the construction of such a 
furnace in cross-section. 

The crucibles in which the charge is to be melted 
stand upon a grate ; the fuel is introduced from above, 
and the gases of combustion pass through a flue into a 
space divided into several low stories in which the 
moulds are placed. With the use of coke or charcoal 
the work is very convenient, since no smoke is devel- 
oped which could possibly contain inflammable combi- 
nations. As will be seen from the above descriptions 
of furnaces for the use of coke or charcoal, no special 
provisions are required to insure a complete combustion 
of the fuel, it being sufficient to connect the furnace 
with a chimney producing a moderately strong draught. 
With the use of coal care must, however, be had to ar- 
range the furnace in such a manner as to insure the 
complete combustion e>f all gaseous products evolved 
from the coal, as otherwise there would be a considerable 
loss of heat. 

The arrangement of furnaces for the use of coal is 
modified in various ways. In one form of construction 
the coal is burned upon an ordinary grate, the gases of 
combustion passing through apertures in a vault of re- 
fractory material into a space in which the crucibles are 
placed. In other constructions, the fire-box is entirely 
separated from the melting-space, being only connected 
with it by flues led off at the sides through which the flame 



MANUFACTURE OF BRASS. 123 

passes around the crucibles. Other constructions might 
be advantageously used for melting down brass. By, for 
instance, arranging the furnace so as to heat the cruci- 
bles by gas, the flame could be suitably regulated by a 
slide and with the use of a generating furnace, a num- 
ber of melting furnaces could be kept going at one time. 
The generating furnace would, of course, have to be 
placed so as to form the centre of a circle on the periph- 
ery of which the separate melting furnaces are located 
and connected with the generating furnace by suitable 
flues. With, suppose, six such melting furnaces, three 
could be supplied with heat, while the others, after the 
removal of the crucibles, would be charged with fresh 
material. 

In conclusion we will say a few words in regard to 
the construction of furnaces in which the fusion of the 
brass is effected directly upon the hearth. Generally 
speaking, they must be so arranged that the copper can 
be quickly melted down upon a flat hearth, care being 
had that the gases passing over the copper contain a 
small excess of unburnt bodies, as the presence of free 
oxygen in the gases might produce an oxidation of the 
copper, and the resulting admixture of cuprous oxide 
injure the quality of the brass. After the fusion of the 
copper it is to be strongly heated, and the zinc, together 
with any brass waste, both previously heated, introduced 
as quickly as possible. It is advisable to connect the 
furnace with two heating rooms, showing different tem- 
peratures. In the room showing the lowest temperature 
the zinc is heated as nearly as possible to its melting 



124 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

point, and in the hotter room the brass waste to be 
added to the fused mass. 

By introducing, as rapidly as possible, the materials 
thus heated into the heated copper, a too rapid cooling 
off of the latter by yielding heat to the zinc need not 
be feared. By this precautionary measure of prepara- 
tory heating, the metal will remain thinly fluid even 
after the introduction of the zinc and the waste brass, 
and the resulting alloy will be perfectly uniform as re- 
gards fracture, hardness, and color. 

The manner in which fusion is effected varies some- 
what in the different works. In furnaces in which the 
king-crucible stands in the centre of a circle and the rest 
on the periphery, the work is generally carried on as 
follows : — 

One of the crucibles is lifted from the furnace and 
being placed alongside of it is first charged with a small 
quantity of brass-waste mixed with a certain quantity 
of pulverized charcoal. Upon this base the mixture 
of copper and zinc in suitable proportions, previously 
weighed off for each crucible, is placed, and the whole 
covered with a layer of a mixture of brass-waste and 
pulverized charcoal. It is also advisable to cover the 
surface of the contents of the crucible with as high a 
layer of pulverized charcoal as possible, this preventing 
at least to some extent a too strong volatilization of the 
zinc. In brass foundries the waste resulting from cast- 
ing and otherwise is always melted down with a new 
charge of the crucibles. The centre crucible, the so- 
called king-crucible, is generally charged last. In some 
foundries it is even customary to leave it entirely un- 



MANUFACTURE OF BRASS. 125 

charged, it forming then so to say the inner casing of 
the furnace. This practice, however, cannot be recom- 
mended. 

The period of the complete fusion of the charge 
depends on the* size of the crucibles, the fuel used, and 
on the construction of the furnace itself, but should not 
be longer than from two to five hours. After placing the 
crucibles in the furnace, the fuel (if coke or charcoal be 
used) is heaped around them, or the coal placed upon the 
grate and ignited. In working with furnaces provided 
with a movable plate the latter is from time to time 
lifted off in order to see that the surface of the melted 
metal remains covered with charcoal. When by clipping 
a rod into the crucibles it is observed that the contents 
are thoroughly liquefied, the casting can be either at 
once proceeded with, or samples may first be taken to 
test the quality of the brass, and, if necessary, change 
its properties by additions to the fused mass. 

While in the course of fusion care must be had to 
keep the apertures through which air is admitted to the 
fuel free, towards the end of the operation they are 
covered as much as possible in order to save fuel. It 
is also of importance not to force the heating of the 
finished alloy further than is absolutely necessary, since 
by strong overheating a considerable portion of the zinc 
volatilizes, and the alloy may acquire properties entirely 
different from those desired. 



IV 



126 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

IX. 

CASTING OF BRASS. 

The casting of brass requires certain precautionary 
measures in order to obtain homogeneous pieces as free 
from flaws as possible. As regards the mode of casting 
we especially distinguish two different methods, viz : 
ingot-casting and plate-casting, the former serving for 
casting brick-shaped pieces, which are to be remelted 
for further working or at once brought into the required 
shape, and the latter for casting plates to be rolled out 
into sheets. 

A. Casting of ingots. — If the brass is to be cast in the 
shape of bricks or cubes or is directly to be used for 
casting various articles, the operation is carried on as 
follows : The king-crucible is generally left empty, and 
after the brass in the other crucibles is thoroughly 
melted down, is lifted from the furnace and placed in a 
depression in front of it filled with glowing coals. One 
crucible after the other is then taken from the furnace 
and its contents emptied into the king-crucible. As 
soon as it is filled the surface of the fused metal con- 
tained in it is covered with charcoal and the whole 
allowed to stand quietly about 15 minutes in order to 
bring about a uniform mixing of the masses emptied 
from the different crucibles. After this period, the 
charcoal is removed from the surface and, after vigor- 
ously stirring the contents of the crucible several times 
with an iron rod, the fused metal is poured into the 
moulds. 



CASTING OF BRASS. 127 

As will be seen from the preceding description the 
king-crucible answers here the purpose of a sump and 
may be suitably replaced by one. For this purpose 
another furnace, in which the sump stands free and can 
be heated to a bright red heat, has to be erected in front 
of the furnace containing the crucibles. This sump 
then serves for the reception of the fused brass, and by 
charging the king-crucible als<5 with metal, the space 
occupied by it in the centre of the furnace can be advan- 
tageously utilized. By arranging several melting fur- 
naces around the sump furnace and with a proper divi- 
sion of the work, only one sump is required, if being 
charged in rotation with the contents of the crucibles 
from the separate furnaces. 

The moulds for casting ingots of brass are similar to 
those used for casting pig-iron. The patterns for the 
moulds are of wood and have generally the form of 
bricks with oblique sides. The patterns are pressed 
alongside each other in wet moulding sand, a small 
gutter being left between each two moulds through 
which the metal after one mould is filled runs into the 
other. 

The object being not so much to give the ingots a 
beautiful appearance as to obtain them in a handy form, 
the sand for making the moulds need not be especially 
fine. The cold ingots of brass have quite a rough sur- 
face and must be freed from adhering grains of sand by 
rubbing. 

For casting articles to be subsequently turned or 
worked with the file special care is required in making 
the mould. As a rule the ingots are remelted in a wind 



128 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

furnace, a certain quantity of brass or of zinc in pieces 
according to the quality the article to be cast is to have, 
being added to the fused metal. For remelting brass 
graphite crucibles are generally used, less dross adher- 
ing to their walls than to those of the rougher clay cru- 
cibles. 

The moulds used for casting articles of brass are 
sometimes made of loam and must be sharply dried 
before use to prevent cracking. Suitable moulding sand 
is, however, generally preferred. The condition of the 
sand is of great importance for the surface of the cast 
article; if it be too meagre the surface is rough and 
requires much after work in turning or filing. Meagre 
sand is improved by adding a small quantity of ordinary 
flour paste or some sugar syrup. If the sand is too fat 
this property is decreased by the addition of some finely 
pulverized charcoal. 

In order to obtain perfect castings great attention 
must be paid to the temperature of the fused brass. 
Overheated metal gives, as a rule, porous castings, and 
if it be too cool the mould is incompletely filled out, 
which with delicate articles may spoil the entire casting. 
The metal must be poured in an uninterrupted stream 
into the mould, otherwise flaws will, as a rule, be formed 
and the casting be useless. In conclusion it may be re- 
marked that in making the mould, vents must be pro- 
vided for the escape of the aqueous vapor evolved. 

B. Casting of plate-brass. — For the preparation of 
sheet-brass or wire-brass the metal has to be cast in the 
form of plates of corresponding thickness. It being 
absolutely necessary for the metal to retain the property 



CASTING OF BRASS. 129 

of ductility, special precautions must be taken in execu- 
ting the casting. 

Many attempts have been made to use iron moulds, 
but in most cases the castings turned out failures on ac^ 
count of the brass cooling off too rapidly. This evil 
might, however, be overcome by heating the moulds in 
a special furnace previously to casting and returning them 
to the furnace after casting, where by a suitable regula- 
tion of the temperature the castings could be cooled off 
as slowly as desired. Such furnace could be built on 
the same principle as the cooling furnace used in glass 
houses. 

Loam moulds give good castings, but have the disad- 
vantage of breaking readily, which, to be sure, might 
be overcome by edging the loam plates with band-iron. 
At present small moulds of sand are frequently used in 
many foundries, which must, of course, be thoroughly 
dried in special furnaces previously to casting. With the 
use of small moulds and careful work faultless plates 
can be readily cast, while with large moulds it frequently 
happens that some places of the plate are defective and 
have to be cut out. 

In many places granite moulds are still in use, and 
yield, according to the statements of many manufactur- 
ers, the best results. The preparation of these moulds 
requires great care, the following points deserving special 
attention : The granite plates must be provided with a 
uniform coating of clay, which must always be kept in 
such a condition as to insure the utmost uniformity in 
the surface of the plates. To prevent the cracking of 



130 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the coating of clay, it is covered after thorough smooth- 
ing with a thin layer of cow-dung. 

The granite plates thus prepared are arranged in the 
following manner: The upper plate is suspended over 
the lower one, the space or mould between the two 
being limited by iron bars laid on the lower stone, 
which is a little longer than the upper one, and projects 
to the front so as to form a lip or mouth-piece for re- 
ceiving the metal. The plates are bound together with 
iron and raised on one side so that they stand at an 
angle of 45°. As soon as the casting is finished and 
the metal is supposed to be solidified, the sheet of brass 
is carefully taken from the mould. With sufficient pre- 
cautions such granite moulds can be used for a long 
time without the coating of clay becoming damaged, and 
the sheets turn out very uniform after the mould has 
once been heated by several castings. One and the 
same mould is frequently used continually in order to 
keep it warm, and if it has to stand empty for some 
time it is enveloped in a bad conductor, as a coarse 
carpet, to prevent its cooling. If the mould is damaged, 
it must be carefully mended and the mended places 
sharply dried to prevent cracking. 

The sheets of brass taken from the mould are sub- 
jected to a mechanical cleansing and at the same time 
carefully inspected ; defective sheets are remelted. 

At the present time the plate-brass obtained by cast- 
ing is generally worked into sheet-brass, which was 
formerly prepared by hammering, but now by rolling. 
In some cases rolling is succeeded by hammering, as, 
for instance, in the case of the very thin sheet brass 



CASTING OF BRASS. 131 

known as Dutch metal, which is distinguished by a 
peculiar, clear sound it emits on being pressed together. 

By the rolling process the brass becomes more brittle, 
and must therefore be frequently annealed, in many 
founderies the annealing process being repeated after 
each passage through the rolls. For the manufacture of 
sheet, brass is generally used which can be worked in 
the cold ; for working brass only ductile in the heat, the 
sheets must of course pass in a hot state through the 
rolls. 

After passing through the rolls the sheet-brass is 
finally subjected to a treatment, which decides whether it 
is to be soft and flexible or hard and elastic. For soft 
sheet the finished sheet-brass is again heated and quickly 
cooled off, while for hard and elastic sheet the annealing 
is omitted while the sheet is still quite thick, so that it 
has to pass several times through the rolls before it is 
finished. 

For annealing the sheets a reverberatory furnace with 
a flat vault is used. The sheets are placed upon a grate 
running upon wheels and rails, so that it can be quickly 
pushed into the furnace or withdrawn from it. The re- 
verberatory furnace is. generally heated with wood or 
charcoal ; if coal is to be used as fuel, it is recommended 
not to expose the sheets to the immediate action of the 
gases of the fire, they always containing a certain 
amount of sulphurous acid which is absorbed by the 
copper. Such sheet-brass, after cleansing, does not show 
a beautiful yellow but a red color, which is due to the 
copper having entered into combination with the small 
quantity of sulphur contained in the gases of the fire. 



132 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

X. 

CLEANSING OR PICKLING OF BRASS. 

The finished shoots have a black color, which is par- 
tially duo to the formation of cupric oxido on the sur- 
face and partially to sulphur combinations formed, as 
previously mentioned, by heating' with eoal in annealing. 
.Vs a rule brass is brought into commerce in a bright 
state, the only exception being the thicker sheets, which 
retain the black coating. In order to impart to the 
sheet its characteristic beautiful yellow color, it is sub- 
jected to a final operation termed pickling or dipping. 
This operation simply consists in treating the sheet with 
aoids, which removes the layer of oxide to which the 
black color is duo. The pickling commences by placing 
the sheets in a fluid consisting of 10 parts of water and 
1 of sulphuric acid. The layer of oxide quickly dis- 
solves in the fluid and the sheets show the pure yellow 
brass color. After this operation the sheets may be at 
once washed and dried and brought into commerce. 

In most cases the sheets are, however, subjected to a 
second treatment with acids in order to impart to them 
a beautiful color: hence the treatment with sulphuric 
acid is generally termed preparatory pickling. As the 
actual pickle either nitric acid by itself is used or a mix- 
ture of two parts of nitric acid and one part of sul- 
phuric acid. Pickles containing nitric acid possess the 
property of dissolving zinc from the brass quicker than 
copper, the surface of the sheet acquiring in consequence 
of it a warmer tone shading more or less into reddish. 



CLEANSING OR PICKLING OF BRASS. 133 

By exercising great care dilute nitric acid by itself may 
be used as a pickle, but the sheets must be immediately 
washed, since if only the slightest trace of the acid re- 
mains, they acquire after some time a greenish color due 
to the formation of a basic cupric nitrate. 

It has been observed that nitric acid containing a cer- 
tain quantity of nitrous acid yields especially beautiful 
shades of color. To obtain them a small quantity of 
organic substance is added to the nitric acid or to the 
mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. The most curious 
substances are used for the purpose, snuff, for instance, 
being highly recommended as especially efficacious in 
producing beautiful colors. The use of such substances 
is, however, entirely superfluous, there being a number 
of cheaper organic substances which, when brought to- 
gether with concentrated nitric acid, evolve nitrous acid. 
The cheapest of these materials is dry saw-dust, the 
nitric acid acquiring a short time after its introduction 
an orange-yellow color, which is due to the products of 
decomposition of the nitric acid, prominent among 
which is nitrous acid. After taking the sheets from the 
pickle they are washed, best in running water, in order 
to remove the last traces of acid. 

By quick pickling the articles are obtained bright by 
the removal of the layer of oxide from the smooth sur- 
face of the metal.. But sometimes a dull lustreless sur- 
face is to be imparted to the brass, which is effected by 
treating the articles with a boiling pickling fluid com- 
posed also of nitric and sulphuric acids. In many fac- 
tories this pickle is prepared by dissolving 1 part of 
zinc in 3 of nitric acid and mixing the solution with 8 
12 



134 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

parts each of nitric and sulphuric acids. The solution 
is heated in a porcelain dish, and the articles to be 
pickled dipped in it 30 to 40 seconds. In dipping the 
brass articles large masses of red-brown vapors origina- 
ting from the products of decomposition of the nitric 
acid are evolved which strongly attack the lungs. The 
operation should therefore be executed under a well- 
drawing chimney, or, still better, in an open space. 

The pickled articles have a gray-yellow color, and in 
order to bring out the pure yellow color are immersed 
for a few seconds in pure nitric acid. They are then 
drawn through a weak solution of soda or potash and 
finally washed. The bright metal losing its beautiful 
color on exposure to the air in consequence of oxidation, 
the articles after drying must be coated with good varnish. 



XL 

RED BRASS. 



With an increase in the content of copper the color 
of brass changes, and its properties as regards ductility, 
strength, and tenacity approach more closely those of 
copper. On account of their color, which facilitates 
gilding so that only a comparatively small quantity of 
gold is required for the production of articles presenting 
a fine appearance, the compounds belonging to this 
group are chiefly used for articles to be gilded. 

The color of red brass being more agreeable to the 
eye than that of ordinary brass, it is also frequently used 



RED BRASS. 135 

for articles not requiring special hardness and strength, 
as door-knobs, escutcheons, curtain-rings, etc. It has, 
however, the disadvantage of turning black quicker 
than ordinary brass. 

The content of copper in red brass amounts up to 80 
per cent, and over, and to modify the properties of the 
alloy according to the purposes they are to serve, tin or 
lead, or sometimes both, are frequently added to the 
mixture. Red brass being frequently used for articles 
made by "striking up" in a die under a press or a 
drop-hammer, it must possess a high degree of ductility 
and tenacity to prevent the cracking of the articles. 
Red brass comes into commerce under a great' many 
names, such as tombac, talmi-gold, etc. But all these 
alloys, no matter "under what name they may be known, 
agree in containing a high percentage of copper. The 
manner of preparing castings and sheet being exactly 
the same as that described for brass, w T e proceed at once 
to give the composition of the most important alloys 
belonging to this group. 

Tombac. — This alloy contains generally 84 to 85 parts 
of copper and 15 to 16 parts of zinc. The proportions 
vary, however, very much, as seen from the following 
table : — 



136 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 





Parts. 




Copper. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


Cast-tombac, German 


87.00 


13.00 




" English . 


86.38 


13.62 


— 


Tombac, German (Oker) 


85.00 


15.00 


— 


" " (Hegermuhl) 


85.30 


14.70 


— 


" Paris (red) . 


92.00 


8.00 


— 


" for gilding, German 


97.80 


2.20 


— 


" " French 


86.00 


14.00 


— 


" German (Liidenscheid) . 


82.30 


17.70 


— 


" French (yellow) 


80.00 


17.00 


3.00 


" golden-yellow 


89.97 


9.98 


0.05 


It It it 


82.00 


17.50 


0.50 



The color of tombac varies from pure copper red to 
orange-yellow, according to the content of copper, though 
a red color is by no means a criterion as regards the con- 
tent of copper, since an alloy of 49.3 parts of copper and 
50.7 of zinc is redder than one of 4 parts of copper and 
1 of zinc. The more copper the alloy contains the more 
fine-grained and ductile it generally is. 

Many small articles, as candle-sticks, inkstands, etc., 
which are sometimes gilt, are made from a compound 
designated in commerce as bronze, which is, however, 
not bronze but only resembles it in color. Such alloys 
are also frequently used for casting small statues, for which 
they are well adapted, since they fill the moulds very uni- 
formly. The composition of these alloys varies very 
much, though zinc and copper are, as a rule, the actual 
constituents, an admixture of tin occurring only occa- 
sionally. We give a few compositions of this (imita- 
tion) bronze : — 



RED BRASS. 137 

Parts. 



I. 


II, 


83.7 


89.8 


9.3 


9.6 


7.0 


0.6 



I. II. III. 

Copper 80 67 76 

Zinc 20 33 24 

Mannheim gold or slmilor. — This alloy has a beautiful 
golden yellow color. Its composition varies consider- 
ably. 

Parts. 

L 
Copper .... 
Zinc ..... 
Tin 

The alloy may also be obtained by melting together 
69.6 parts of copper, 29.8 of brass, and 0.6 of finest tin. 

Mannheim gold was formerly much used in the manu- 
facture of buttons and pressed articles of a gold-like 
appearance, but it has recently been superseded by alloys 
which surpass it as regards beautiful color. 

Chrysochalk (gold-copper). — This term is applied to 
several alloys resembling gold, which may consist of 
copper 90.5 parts, zinc 7.9, lead 1.6, or of copper 58.68, 
zinc 39.42, lead 1.90. 

The beautiful color of this alloy soon disappears on 
exposure to the air, but can be preserved for some time 
by coating articles manufactured from it with a colorless 
varnish. Chrysochalk is generally used for ordinary 
gold imitations, as watch-chains, articles of jewelry, etc. 

Chrysorin. — This alloy prepared by Rauschenberger, 
consists of 100 parts of copper and 51 of zinc. Its 
color resembles that of 18 to 20 carat gold, and does 
not tarnish on the air. 

12* 



138 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Pinchbeck. — The alloy known under this name was 
first manufactured in England, and is distinguished by 
its dark gold color which comes nearest to that of gold 
alloyed with copper. Pinchbeck being very ductile can 
be rolled out into very thin plates, which can be brought 
into any desired shape by stamping. The alloy does 
not readily oxidize in the air, and is, therefore, well 
adapted for cheap articles of jewelry, for which it is 
principally used. Pinchbeck answering all demands is 
composed — 

Parts. 



Or, 



Copper 
Zinc 



Brass 

Copper 

Zinc 



I. 


II. 


88.8 


93.6 


11.2 


6.4 


1.0 


0.7 


2.0 


1.28 


— 


0.7 



Oracle or oroide [French gold). — This alloy is distin- 
guished by its beautiful color, which resembles that of 
gold so closely that scarcely any difference can be detected 
on comparing the two metals. Besides its beautiful 
color it has other valuable properties, it being very duc- 
tile and tenacious so that it can be readily stamped into 
any desired shape ; it also takes a high polish. It is 
frequently used for the manufacture of spoons, forks, 
etc., but being injurious to health on account of its large 
content of copper is not suitable for the purpose. The 
directions for preparing this alloy vary very much, some 
masses from Paris factories showing the following com- 
positions : — 





RED BRASS. 






Copper 


. 90 


80.5 


68.21 1 


Zinc 


. 10 


14.5 


13.52 1 


Tin 


. 




0.48 ( 


Iron 


. 




0.24 ) 



139 



According to a special receipt oreide is prepared in 
the following manner : Melt 100 parts of copper and 
add with constant stirring 6 parts of magnesia, 3.6 of 
sal ammoniac, 1.8 of lime, and 9 of crude tartar. Stir 
again thoroughly and then add 17 parts of granulated 
zinc, and after mixing it with the copper by vigorous 
stirring, keep the alloy liquid for one hour. Then 
remove the cover of froth and pour out the alloy. 

Talmi or talmi-gold. — Cheap articles of jewelry, chains, 
earrings, bracelets^ etc., were first brought into commerce 
from Paris under the name of talmi-gold, which were 
distinguished by beautiful workmanship, a low price, 
and great durability. Later on, when this alloy had 
required considerable reputation, other alloys or rather 
metals, were brought into commerce under the same 
name, which retained their beautiful gold color, how- 
ever, only as long as the articles manufactured from 
them were not used. 

The finer quality of talmi-gold retains its pure gold 
color for some time and consists actually of brass or 
copper or tombac covered with a thin plate of gold 
combined with the base by rolling. The plates thus 
formed are then rolled out by passing through rolls, 
whereby the coating of gold not only acquires consider- 
able density but adheres so firmly to the base that articles 
manufactured from the metal can be used for years 
without losing their beautiful appearance. 



140 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



In modern times articles of talmi-gold are brought 
into market which are simply electro-plated, the coating 
of gold being in many cases so thin that by strong 
rubbing with a rough cloth the color of the base shows 
through. Such articles, of course, lose their gold-like 
appearance in a short time. 

In the following we give the compositions of a few 
alloys used in the manufacture of articles of talmi-gold ; 
it will be seen that the content of gold varies very much, 
the durability of the articles manufactured from the 
respective alloys being, of course, a corresponding one. 
The alloys I., II., and III. are genuine Paris talmi-gold ; 
IV., V., and VI. are imitations which are electro-plated, 
and VII. is an alloy of a wrong composition to which 
the gold does not adhere. 





I. 


ir. 


in. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


Copper 


89.88 


90.79 


90.00 


/ 90.69 

188.16 


J 87.48 
\83.13 


/ 93.46 

1 S4.55 


86.4 


Zinc . . 


9.32 


8.33 


8.9 


j 8.97 
111.42 


J 12.44 
116.97 


f 6.60 
\15.79 


12.2 


Tin . . 


— 


— 


. — 


_ 


— 


— 


1.1 


Iron . . 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


0.3 


Gold . . 


1.03 


0.97 


0.91 


f 0.05 


r o.os 


f 0.05 
















Tissier's metal. — This alloy is distinguished by great 
hardness, and differs from the previously described 
compounds in containing arsenic. It has a beautiful 
tombac red color. Its composition is not always the 
same, the quantities of the component metals varying 
within wide limits. The alloy actually deserving the 



RED BEASS. 141 

name is composed of copper 97 parts, zinc 2, arsenic 
1 to 2. 

According to this composition Tissier's metal may be 
considered a brass containing a very high percentage of 
copper and hardened by an addition of arsenic. It is 
sometimes used for axle-bearings, but can be very suit- 
ably replaced by other alloys, to be mentioned further 
on, which are preferable to it on account of lacking the 
dangerous arsenic. 

Tournay's metal. — This alloy is much used by the 
Paris manufacturers of bronze articles, and on account 
of its great ductility can be advantageously employed 
for the manufacture of cheap jewelry to be made from 
very thin sheet. It is also well adapted for the manu- 
facture of buttons. It is composed of copper 82.54 
parts, zinc 17.46. 



The preceding alloys are those which, strictly speak- 
ing, belong to the brasses, the composition of the mix- 
tures as regards their principal constituents — copper and 
zinc — varying only within certain limits, and the addi- 
tion of tin, lead, and iron being only made in order to 
change the properties of the alloys for certain purposes. 
Besides these alloys there are, however, some which find 
special application, and for that reason will be discussed 
separately; the alloys known as white metal, etc., and 
the metallic mixtures known as bronze-powders belong- 
ing to this group. 



142 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

XII. 

WHITE METAL. 

The alloys known under this name contain, besides a 
certain proportion of copper, a large quantity of zinc, 
and thus have the qualitative composition of brass with- 
out, however, sharing its other properties. In conse- 
quence of the large content of zinc, the color of these 
alloys is not yellow, but either pure white (silver-white) 
or a pale, but pleasant yellow. Their ductility decreas- 
ing considerably with the increase in the content of zinc, 
they can only be used for cast articles, which are to be 
finished by the lathe or file. Their comparatively low 
melting point is also due to the large content of zinc, 
Being quite cheap, they are well adapted for casting 
statuettes and other small articles not exposed to the 
influence of the weather. In the air these alloys do not 
acquire the beautiful color of bronze, called patina, but 
a dirty brown-green. 

On account of their white color these alloys are much 
used in the manufacture of buttons, and can be par- 
tially worked with a fly-press without, however, sub- 
jecting them to too strong a pressure. 

Birmingham platinum. — This alloy is of a pure, 
nearly silver-white color, which remains constant on the 
air for some time. The alloy is, however, so brittle as 
to be only suitable for casting. Buttons are made of it 
by casting it in moulds giving sharp impressions, the 
letter, escutcheon, etc., upon the button being subse- 
quently brought out more by careful pressing. The 



WHITE METAL. 143 

alloy, which is also known as platinum-lead, is com- 
posed of — 

Parts. 

1. 
Copper .... 
Zinc .... 

Other alloys for white buttons consist of — ■ 

Parts. 



Yellow brass 
Zinc . 
Tin . 



I. 


II. 


III. 


43 


46.5 


4 


57 


53.5 


16 



I. 


II. 


32 


32 


3 


4 


1 


2 



SoreFs alloy. — This important and valuable alloy pos- 
sesses properties rendering it especially suitable for many 
purposes. It is chiefly remarkable for its considerable 
hardness, it being in this respect at least equal to good 
wrought-iron. Its tenacity surpasses that of the best 
cast-iron. In casting it shows the valuable property of 
being readily detached from the mould, and it can be 
mechanically worked with great ease, but is too brittle 
to be rolled out into sheets or drawn into wire. It is 
much used for casting small statues, which after careful 
bronzing are brought into commerce under the name of 
cast-bronze. It may also be employed in the manufac- 
ture of articles exposed to the influence of the weather, 
as it rusts with difficulty and finally becomes coated 
with a thin, firmly-adhering layer of oxide which pre- 
vents further oxidation. The following mixtures have 
nearly the same properties, though they vary very much 
as regards their composition : — 



144 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Parts. 



I. II. 

Copper . . . . .1 10 

Zinc 98 SO 

Iron .1 10 

The iron is used in the shape of cast-iron shavings, 
which are added to the zinc. The copper is then added 
and the alloy kept fluid under a cover of glowing coals 
for some time, in order to insure an intimate combina- 
tion of the metals without a combustion of the zinc. 
The alloy being difficult to prepare in the above manner 
on account of the combustibility of the zinc, it is rec- 
ommended in preparing large quantities not directly to 
mix the metals, but to use brass of known composition. 
This is melted down under a cover of charcoal and 
slightly overheated ; the zinc is then added and finally 
the iron. 



XIII. 

IMITATION GOLD ALLOYS. 

There are, as previously mentioned, some alloys 
whose color closely resembles that of gold and which 
are used for cheap gold-colored coatings. These alloys 
when in a beaten state are known as Dutch gold or leaf- 
metal, and are prepared in various colors as dark yellow, 
pale yellow, greenish-yellow, etc. The principal seats of 
this special industry are Vienna, jNurnberg, and Fiirth, 



IMITATION GOLD ALLOYS. 145 

where the manufacture is carried on in connection with 
that of bronze powder. 

The composition of the alloys, for the preparation of 
green leaf-metal, varies between the proportions given in 
the following compositions : Copper 77 to 85 parts, 
zinc 23 to 15. 

The metals are melted in graphite crucibles, and in 
order to insure the uniformity of the alloy are kept 
liquid for some time. The mixture is then cast into 
half-round ingots about 23J inches long and about J 
inch in diameter. These ingots are rolled cold into 
strips about the thickness of ordinary writing 'paper. 
Each of these strips is folded together so as to form 
a package about 23 J inches long. This package is 
beaten under a hammer set in motion by a motor until 
the strip forms a band about 3f inches wide. The 
very thin strips obtained in this manner are cut up into 
pieces which are again hammered until they begin to 
tear on the edges, about one thousand of the thin strips 
being placed together for this operation. 

The strips are then cut into square leaves, which are 
placed between parchment leaves and beaten under a 
rapidly-moving hammer until they are about 5J inches 
square. Each of the leaves is now cut into four squares 
of equal size, which are beaten between parchment 
leaves in the same manner as genuine gold-leaf. The 
beaten metal is placed in books of tissue-paper which, 
to prevent the leaf-metal from adhering, is previously 
slightly rubbed with colcathar. 

Leaf-metal is much used for gilding all sorts of arti- 
cles, and its beautiful color may be preserved for some 
13 



148 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

time by applying a coat of thin colorless or slightly 
yellow varnish. By adding to the latter a small quan- 
tity of a pure color — aniline colors being well adapted 
for the purpose — the color of the leaf-metal can be 
readily changed into red ; green, violet, etc. 



XIV. 

BRONZE POWDERS. 

A series of colors consisting of very finely triturated 
metallic powder occurs, as is well known, in commerce. 
These colors are used for various purposes, as in print- 
ing, in the manufacture of wall-papers, for coating arti- 
cles of iron and plaster of Paris, and, in short, in all 
cases where the appearance of metal is to be given to 
any article. The alloys used in the preparation of these 
bronze powders have, as regards their quantitative com- 
position, the greatest similarity to tombac. For colors 
shading strongly into white metallic mixtures with a 
high percentage of zinc are used, and for those approach- 
ing more a pure red alloys with a large content of 
copper. 

The many shades of color found in commerce are, 
however, not produced by the employment of different 
compounds, but by heating the alloys converted into an 
impalpable powder until the desired shade is obtained 
by the formation of a thin layer of oxide upon the sur- 
face of each particle. In modern times bronze powders 
are brought into commerce showing beautiful green, 



BRONZE POWDERS. 147 

blue, and violet colors, which are, however, not obtained 
by the . formation of a layer of oxide, but by coloring 
the metallic powder with aniline color. The manner of 
preparing bronze powders has been recently much im- 
proved by the use of suitable machines for the conver- 
sion of the alloys into powder. 

In metal-leaf factories the waste resulting in rolling 
out and hammering is used for the preparation of bronze 
powder. According to the old method the waste was 
rubbed with a honey or gum solution upon a stone until 
a mass consisting of fine powder combined to a dough by 
the honey or gum solution was formed. This dough 
was thrown into water, and after the solution of the 
agglutinant the metallic powxler was dried, and subjected 
to oxidation by mixing it with a little fat and heating it 
in a pan over an open fire until the desired shade of 
color was obtained. At the present time this laborious 
and time-consuming method has been much shortened 
by the use of suitable machines, and of alloys prepared 
by melting together the metals in suitable proportions 
for powders which do not require to be colored by 
oxidation. These alloys are beaten out into thin 
leaves by hammers driven by steam. The leaves 
are then converted into powder by forcing them 
through the meshes of a fine iron-wire sieve with the 
assistance of a scratch-brush. This rubbing through is 
effected with a simultaneous admission of oil, and the 
mass running: off from the sieve is brought into a grind- 
ing machine of peculiar construction — a steel-plate cov- 
ered with fine blunt-pointed needles revolving over 



148 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



another steel-plate. In this machine the mass is reduced 
to a very fine powder mixed, however, with oil. The 
powder is first brought into water where the greater 
portion of the oil separates on the surface. The metallic 
mass lying on the bottom of the vessel is then subjected 
to a strong pressure, which removes nearly all the oil, 
the small quantity remaining exerting no injurious 
influence, but being rather beneficial, as it causes the 
powder to adhere with greater tenacity to the articles to 
which it is applied. 

In the following we give the compositions of the 
alloys for some colors : — 



Color. 


Parts. 
Copper. 


Parts. 
Zinc. 


Parts. 

1*011. 


Yellow 


82.33 


16.69 


0.16 


Pale green .... 


84.32 


15.02 


0.63 


Lemon ..... 


84.50 


15.30 


0.07 


Copper-red .... 
Orange ..... 


99.90 

98.93 


0.73 


— 


Pale yellow .... 
Crimson . 


90.00 

98.22 


9.60 

0,50 


0.56 



The better qualities of English bronze powders con- 
sist of copper 83 parts, silver 4.5, tin 8, oil 4.5, and the 
poorer qualities, of copper 64.8 parts, silver 4.3, tin 8.7, 
zinc 12.9, and oil 3. 

The variety of bronze powder known under the name 
of "brocade" consists of coarser pieces prepared from 
the waste of metal-leaf factories by comminuting it by 
means of a stamping-mill, and separating the pieces of 
unequal size formed first by passing through a sieve and 



BRONZE POWDERS. 149 

finally by a current of air. A certain kind of brocade 
does, however, not consist of a metallic alloy, but sim- 
ply of mica rubbed to a fine powder. Some kinds of 
bronze powder, as previously mentioned, are colored 
with aniline colors. This is effected by simply pouring 
a dilute solution of the aniline color in strong alcohol 
over the powder and intimate mixing. 



In the following table, originally collated for the 
Committee on Alloys of the U. S. Board,* the * proper- 
ties of the alloys of copper and zinc as described by the 
best authorities are exhibited in a concise manner : — 

* Report, Vol. II., 1881. 



13* 



150 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Properties of the Alloys of 
Comparison of 



x 




Composition 


Composition 








a 


Atomic 


of original 
mixture. 


by 

analysis. 


Specific 


Color. 


Fracture. 


a 


formula. 








gravity. 






<D 


Cu. 


Zn. 


Cu. 


Zn. 




I 




100 





_ 




S.S74 


Red 


Fibrous 


2 




100 





— 


— 


8.667 


Tile-red 


Earthy 


3 




100 





— 


— 


8.921 








4 




100 





— 


— 


— 








5 




100 





— 


— 


S.952 








6 




100 





— 


— 


— 








7 




100 





— 


— 


8.672 








8 




99.15 


85 


- 


— 


— 








9 




97.80 


2.20 




- 


- 








IO 




97. oO 


2.50 


97.83 


1.S8 


8.791 


Yellow-red 


Vesicular 


ii 




97.20 


2.50 


— 


— 


— 








12 




95 


5 


96.07 


3.79 


8.825 


Yellow-red 


Vesicular 


J 3 




93.6 


6.4 


— 


— 


— 








14 




92.5 


7..1 


92 32 


7.63 


8.746 


Yellow-red 


Vesicular 


15 
16 




92.5 

92 


7.5 

8 




— 


— 







17 
18 


CujqZu 


91 
90.72 


9 
9.28 


- 


- 


S.605 


Red-yellow 


Coarsely 
crystalline 


19 


Cu 10 Zu 


90.65 


9.35 


— 


9.60 


8.S34 








20 




90 


10 


90.56 


9.42 


8.773 


Yellow-red 


Vesicular 


21 




90 


10 


— 


— 


— 








22 


CiigZn 


89.80 


10.20 




— 


8.607 


Red-yellow 


Finely 
crystalline 


2 3 




8S.S9 


11.11 


— 


— 


— 








24 


Cu 8 Zn 


8S.60 


11.40 


— 


— 


8.633 


Red-yellow 


Finely 
crystalline 


25 




87.50 


12.50 


88.91 


10.97 


— 


Yellow-red 


Vesicular 


26 


Cu 7 Zn 


87.30 


12 70 


— 


— 


8.587 





Finely 
crystalline 


27 




86.67 


13.33 


— 


— 


— 








28 




S6.38 


1361 


— 


— 


— 








29 




S6 


14 


- 


- 


- 








3° 




85 5 


14 5 








S.591 


Yellow-red 


Fiue fibrous 


3 1 


Cu e Zn 


85.34 


14.66 


— 


14.90 


S.710 








32 




So 3 


14.7 


— 


— 


— 








33 




85 


15 


S9.80 


10.06 


8.656 


Red-yellow 


Earthy 


34 




85 


15 


— 


— 


— 








35 




84.6 


15.4 


— 


— 


— 









PROPEETIES OF COPPER- ZINC ALLOYS. 



151 



Copper and Zinc. 
sev r eral authorities. 



DO 
U 
<D 

- 

s 

fi 

<D 

a 


ill 


1 * 

B 33 

c 


If 

.S B 

It 


>, 

"22 




5 33 si 
33 


"2S 





b s 

« 2 5 

a— ^ 

•a 1- _ 

g«2"S 

O 


> ■£ 11 

■£ » . 

B«2 

-a - _ 
§<2» 





B 
< 


Remarks. 


2 

3 
4 
5 
6 
7 

8 
9 

TO 

12 

13 
14 

15 
16 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 
22 

23 
24 

25 
26 

27 
28 

29 

SO 
31 

32 

33 
34 
35 


27,809 
55,101 

21,252 

27,210 
11, SCO 

27,101 

25 760 
28,672 
29,568 

31,581 


s 

6 

4 
2 
9 

5 


30.8 

118.9 

37.9 

169.1 
250.1 


1 

13 

11 

10 
9 

s 


22 
30.1 

21 

20 
19 
IS 

17 


15 

14 

13 

12 
11 

10 

Z 


81.1 

73.6 

27.3 

29.9 


93.16 
79.3 

25.5 
30.9 


U.S.B. 
Ml. 
Ma. 
C. J. 
Mar. 
We. 
We. 

Bo. 

U.S.B. 

Bo. 

U.S.B. 

Bo. 
U. S.B. 

Bo. 

Bo. 

Bo. 
Ml. 

Ri. 

U.S.B. 
Bo. 

Ml. 

Wo. 

Ml. 

U.S.B. 
Ml. 

We. 
Bo. 

Bo. 

Bo. 
Ml. 
Ri. 

Bo. 

U.S.B. 

Bo. 


Sheet copper. 

Mean of 9 sam- 
ples. 

Tombac for but- 
tons. 

Red tombac of 
Vienna. 

Railway axles, 

porous. 
Defective bar. 
Pinchbeck. 

[tria. 
Bearings, Aus- 
Red tombac of 

Paris. 
Tombac. 

Specific gravity 
of ingot, S.753. 

French oroide. 

Very delicate 

castings. 
Ornaments of 

Hanover. 
French oreide. 

Specific gravity 
of powder, 8.5F4. 
Paris jewelry. 

Tombac of Oker. 



152 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Properties of the Alloys of 



50 

J- 




Composition 


Composition 










Atomic 


of original 
mixture. 


by 
analysis. 


Specific 


Color. 


Fracture. 


a 


formula. 






gravity. 






2 


Cu. 


Zd. 


Cu. 


Zn. 




i 




S4.21 


15.79 












2 




83.99 


17.1 


— 


~ 


— 








3 


Cu 5 Zn 


83.02 


16. 9S 


- 


- 


S.415 


Red-yellow 


Finely 
crystalline 


4 
5 
6 


Cu 5 Zn 


S2.95 


17.05 


— 


— 


8.673 










82.54 


17.46 


— 


— 


— 










82.5 


17.5 


S2.93 


16.9S 


8.633 


Red-yellow 


Earthy 


7 
8 




S2.46 


17.54 


— 


— 


— 










82.3 


17.7 


— 


m 











9 




SO . 


20 


S1.91 


17.90 


S.598 


Yellow 


Earthy 


to CiuZn 


79.65 


20.35 


— 


— 


— 


Yellow-red 


Finely 


















crystalline 


ii 


Cu 4 Zn 


79.56 


20.44 


— 


— 


8.650 





" 


12 


Cu 4 Zn 


79.51 


20.49 


— 


21. SO 


8.63S 








13 




77.9 


22.1 


— 


— 


— 








14 




77 5 


22.5 


77.39 


22.45 


8.574 


Yellow 


Earthy 


15 
16 




75.7 


24.3 


— 


— 


— 










75 


25 


76.65 


23. OS 


S.52S 


Yellow 


Earthy 


17 

18 




74.62 


25.3S 


— 


— 


— 








Cu 3 Zn 


74.5S 


25.42 


— 


— 


8.397 


Pale yellow 


Finely 


















crystalline 


J 9 


Cu 3 Za 


74.4S 


25.52 


— 


— 


S.576 





" 


20 




72.73 


27.27 

















21 




72.5 


27.5 


73.20 


26.47 


8.465 


Yellow 


Earthy 


22 




72 


2S 


— 


— 


— 








23 
24 




71.5 


25.5 



















70.1 


29.9 


_ 





— 








25 




70 


30 


71.20 


2S.54 


S.444 


Yellow 


Earthy 


26 




67.74 


32.26 


— 


— 


— 








27 
28 




67.54 


32.46 


— 


— 


— 










67.5 


32.5 


69.74 


30.06 


8.384 


Yellow 


Eai thy 


29 
30 




67.2 


32. S 


— 


— 


— 










66.7 


33.3 


— 


— 


— 








3 1 
32 




66.6 


33.4 


— 


— 


— 








CiioZa 


66.1S 


33.S2 


— 


— 


8.299 


Full yellow 


Finely 
















crystalline 


33 


Cu 2 Za 


66.16 


33 84 


— 


— 


8.392 





" 


34 


Cu 2 Za 


66.06 


33.94 


— 


— 


8.4SS 








35 

36 




66 


34 


— 


— 


— 










65.9S 


34.02 


— 


34.50 


S.410 





— - 


37 




6o.4 


34.6 








_ 








38 




65.3 


34.7 


— 


— 


— 








39 




65 


35 


66.27 


33.50 


S.371 


Red-yellow 


Earthy 


40 




65 


34.76 


— 




— 








41 




63.5 


36.5 


— 




— 








42 




62.5 


37.5 


63.44 


36.36 


S.411 


Red-yellow 


Earthy 


43 




61.25 


3S.75 


— 


1 — 


— 









PROPERTIES OF COPPER-ZINC ALLOYS. 



153 



Copper and Zinc. — Continued. 



OB 

« 

6 

S 

<s 

a 
3 


i- ■*■ 

P. = 

■s§i 

Eh 


1 * 
p "5 

IS 

a, ^ 
-p •- 

O 


Is" 

® £ 
.£ p 


"5 "3 

3 — 

■gs 




4. C-5 
ill 

£ c« ec 


0. 

>> 

<B — 1 
O 


- 
& s 

2 ® «- 

a — 
•♦» X 

O 


~ 

|l II 

-E <B u 

g"3 i= 





p 
< 


Remarks. 


i 

2 

3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

IO 

ii 

12 

J 3 

14 
IS 
16 
i7 
18 

19 

20 
21 
22 

23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
3° 
31 
32 

33 
34 
35 
36 

37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 
43 


30,688 

32,600 

32 670 

5-2,928 

35,630 
30.520 
29,314 

31,580 

30,510 
2>,120 

28,000 

37 800 
48,300 


11 

7 

10 

3 

472 92 


105.3 
113.1 

97.5 
76.7 

SS.7 

77.8 
49.1 

72.8 
60.6 


2 
3 

4 

6 


16 
427. OS 

- 

15 

468.75 

14 

46S.75 

z 

13 


9 



8 

7 

6 


71.5 
31.1 

66.6 

63.8 

25. S 

62.1 

z 


29.02 
25.4 


Bo. 
Bo. 

Bo. 

Ml. 

C. J. 

Bo. 

U.S.B. 

We. 

Bo. 

U.S.B. 

Ml. 

C. J. 
Ri. 

Bo. 
U. S B. 

Bo. 
U.S.B. 

Ml. 

C. J. 

Bo. 
U.S.B. 

Bo. 

Bo. 

Bo. 

U.S. B. 

We. 

Bo. 
U.S.B. 

Bo. 

Bo. 

Bo. 

Ml. 

Cr. 
C. J. 

Bo. 

Ki. 

Bo. 

Bo. 
U.S.B. 

Bo. 

Bo. 
U.S.B. 

Bo. 


Gold leaf. 
Tombac for but- 
tons. 
Bronze powder. 

Bath metal. 

Alloy for jew- 
1 [elry. 

Ornaments. 

Dutch brass. 

Specific gravity 
of powder, 8.367. 
Vienuagoldleaf 

Bristol metal. 

Rolled sheet 
brass. 

Brass of 32 cop- 
per, 12 zinc. 

Chrysorin. 
Tombac. 
Suitable for for- 
[ging or leaf. 

Suitable for for- 
cing. 
Bristol metal. 
Chrysorin. 
Common brass. 

[gin jr. 
Suitable for for- 
Specific gravity 
of powder. 8.390. 
Good brass wire 
Mosaic gold. 

[Kin*. 
Suitable for tor- 

[for brass. 
Stroug solder 



154 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Properties of the Alloys of 



00 




Composition 


Corapc 


sition 










Atomic 


of original 
mixture. 


by 
analysis. 


Specific 


Color. 


Fracture. 


a 


formula. 










gravity. 






s 


Cu. 


Zn. 


Cu. 


Zn. 




I 




60.8 


39.2 












2 




60.16 


39.71 








— 








3 




60 


40 


60 91 


3S.65 


8.405 


Red yellow 


Earthy 


4 




60 


40 





— 


— 


— — 





5 




59.o 


4)5 
















6 


Cu 3 Zn 


59.36 


40 64 





— 


8.224 








7 


CU3Z112 


59.26 


40.74 


— 


40 10 


8.412 








8 




5S.33 


41.77 


_ 














9 




57.5 


42.5 


5S.49 


41.10 


8.333 


Red-yellow 


Earthy 


IO 




55 


45 


— 


— 


— 








ii 




55 


45 


55.15 


44.44 


S.2S3 


Red-yellow 


Earthy 


12 




54.9 


45.1 


— 


— 


— 








13 




54 


46 


_ 


_ 


_ 








14 




52.5 


47.5 


54.S6 


44.7S 


8.301 


Red-yellow 


Coarsely 
granular 


15 




50 


50 


49.66 


50.14 


S.291 


" 


" 


l6 


CuZtt 


49.47 


50.53 


— 


— 


8.230 


Full yellow 


Coarsely 
crystal hue 


T7 


CnZn 


49.32 


50 68 


— 


— 


7. SOS 








lb 


CuZn 


49.23 


50.76 


— 


50.30 


8.304 








19 




47.5 


52.5 


48.95 


50. S2 


S.216 


Pinkish-gray 


Coarsely 
granular 


20 




45 


55 


47.56 


52.28 


— 


" 


" 


21 




43 


57 


— 


— 


— 








22 




42.5 


57.5 


43.36 


56.22 


8.034 


Pinkish-gray 


Finely 
granular 


23 




40 


60 


41.30 


5S.12 


8.061 


Silver-white 


Vitreous 
conchoidal 


24 


Cu 2 Zn 3 


39.27 


60.73 


— 


60.35 


S171 








25 




37.5 


62.5 


3S.36 


61.05 


7.9S2 


Silver-white 


Vitreous 
conchoidal 


26 


Cu 3 Zn 5 


36.88 


63.12 


— 


_ 


7.939 








27 




35 


65 


36.62 


62.78 


7.974 


Silver-white 


Vitreous 

couchoidttl 


28 


C uZn 2 


33.34 


66.66 


— 


— 


— 








29 


CuZn 2 


32.S5 


67.15 


- 


- 


S.2S3 


Deep yellow 


Coarsely 

crystalline 


3° 


CuZiio 


32.74 


67.26 


— 


— 


7.859 





" 


3' 


CuZu 2 


32.66 


67.34 


— 


64 SO 


S.04S 








3 2 




32 5 


67 5 


35.6S 


63.71 


7.966 


Silver-white 


Vitreous 
conchoidal 


33 


Cn 8 Zn 17 


31 .52 


6S.4S 


— 


— 


7.721 


" 


Conchoidal 


34 


Cu 8 Zn 18 


30.30 


69.70 


— 


— 


7.836 


" 


Vitreous 
conchoidal 


35 




30 


70 


32.94 


66.23 


7 Ml 


" 


" 



PEOPERTIES OF COPPER- ZINC ALLOYS. 



155 



Copper and Zinc. — Continued. 









>> 




^3 


. | • 








































"S 1 


>» . 






u 


8-S 


1 ® 


2 a 






. ® 
3** 2 








s 

a 


•5 2 5 


^2 
.t a 
,Ie-< 

0) v -' 


» — 


7 b a 
5 ss * 


rder of ft 
bility (M 

onductivi 
for heat, 
silver = 


.2 II 
2.2 -a 


3 
,a 


Remarks. 


Hi 


h 





1-1 


c 


33 


O IO 





< 




I 


















Bo. 


Bristol metal. 


2 


















Bo. 


Suitable for for- 


3 


41,065 


— 


49.0 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U. S. B. 


cing. 


4 


















— 


Muntz metal. 


5 


















Bo. 
Cr. 
Ri. 


Ship sheathing. 


7 


















Specific gravity 






















of powder, S.329. 


8 


— 
















Bo. 


Suitablcfor for- 


9 


50,450 


— 


12.1 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S.B. 


cing- 


IO 


















Bo. 


Bath metal. 


ii 


44,280 


_ 


19.5 


— 





— 


— 





U.S.B. 




12 


















Bo. 


Very ductile 
brass (Storer.) 


1^ 


















Bo. 


11 << 


J 4 


46,400 


— 


7.4 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S. B. 




IS 


30,S90 





3.1 













_ 


U.S.B. 




16 


20, 60S 


12 


— 


5 


12 


6 


— 


— 


Ml. 


German brass. 


17 


_ 


— 


_ 


— 


604.17 


_ 


6S.8 





C J. 




18 










— 








Ki. 


Specific gravity 
of ingot, S.2S3. 


19 


26,050 


— 


0.36 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S.B. 




20 


2t,150 





0.26 


— 


_ 


_ 








U.S.B. 




21 


— 


— 














Bo. 


Escutcheons of 


22 


9,710 


— 


0.02 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S.B. 


[locks. 


23 


3,727 


- 


0.01 


— 


— 


- 


- 


— 


U.S.B. 




24 


















Ri. 


Specific gravity 
of ingot, 8.039. 


25 


3,087 


— 


0.02 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S.B. 




26 


















Cr. 




27 


2,656 


— 














U.S.B. 




28 


















Bo. 


Strong solder 
for brass. 


29 


43.232 


1 


— 


7 


10 


6 


— 


— 


Ml. 


Watchmaker's 
brass. 


3° 


— 


— 


— 


— 






42.8 




C. J. 




31 


















Ki. 


Specific gravity 
of ingot, 7.796. 


32 


2,397 


— 


0.11 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S.B. 




31 


4,701 








22 


5 


5 


_ 





Ml. 


Very brittle. 


34 


4,92S 





— 


23 


6 


5 


— 


— 


Ml. 


Very brittle 


35 


1,774 


— 




— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U. S.B. 





156 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Properties of the Alloys of 



Atomic 
formula. 



Cu 8 Zn 19 
Cu 8 Zu 20 

Cn 8 Zn 21 
CurZdw 



Cu 8 Zn 23 



CuZu 3 
CuZn 3 



CuZn 4 

CuZn 4 
CuZu 4 



CuZn 5 
CuZnr, 



CuZm 



Composition 

of original 

mixture. 



Cornpositioi 
analysis. 



Cu. 


Zn. 


Cu. 


29.17 

28,12 

27.5 

27.10 

26.24 

25.4 


70. S3 

71.88 

72.5 

72.90 

73.76 

74.6 


29.20 


25.39 


74.61 


- 


25 


75 


- 


24.64 
21.5 


75.36 
73.5 


- 


22.5 


77.5 


21.S2 


20 
20 


SO 

so 


20.81 


19.65 


80.35 


- 


19.57 

i9:.->2 


SO 43 

80.48 


— 


175 


82.5 


17.49 


16.3J 


S3. 64 


- 


1 6.30 
15 


83.70 
85 


14.19 


12.5 
10.S2 


87.5 
S9 18 


12.12 


10 


90 


10.30 


7.5 
5 


92.5 
95 


7.20 
4.35 


25 


97.5 


2.45 










100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


" 



Zn. 



77.43 

77.63 



79.30 

SI. 62 



85.10 

S6.67 
89 90 

88.88 

92 07 
94.59 



Specific 
gravity. 



S.019 
7.603 
7.766 
S 058 

7.8S2 



7.443 

7.675 



7.736 
7.449 



7.416 
7.418 



7.445 
7863 

7.225 

6 605 

7.442 
7.163 

7.238 
7.315 

7.2)3 

7.131 
7.108 

7.0S0 

7 143 
6.S95 
7.14S 



Color. 



Silver-gray 
Ash-gray 
Light gray 
Silver-gray 



Ash-gray 
Bluish-gray 

Ash-gray 
Bluish-gray 

Ash-gray 

Bluish gray 

Very dark 
gray 

Bluish-gray 
Bluish-gray 



Bluish-white 
Bluish-gray 



Fracture. 



Couchoidal 
Vitreous 



CoDchoidal 



Finely 
crystalline 
Finely 
granular 

Finely 
crystalline 
Finely 
granular 



Fiuely 
crystalline 



Finely 
granular 
Finely 
crystalline 

Finely 
granular 



Finely 
grauular 

Finely 
crystalline 
Tabular, 
crystalline 



PROPERTIES OF COPPER-ZINC ALLOYS. 



157 



Copper and Zinc. — Concluded. 









>» 


^, 
















-A 


." 


Ac 


0> 


cr- 




£ . 






an 


® 2 


1 * 

3 as 

T 5 '5 


§ a 


^"sb 




«* 


5 1 


£2 






E 

s 
o 

p 


ill 






^_ > p 

S3 S3 SB 


a; — 


•a S " 

P ,«-= 
Sm Bi 


.2 s II 

~ 41 . 

§c2-S 





Keinarks. 


5 


H 


O 


w 





EC 


5 


O 





< 




i 


1,568 





_ 


21 


7 


5 






Ml. 


Very brittle. 


2 


7,1 6S 





— 


19 


3 


5 





— 


Ml. 


Brittle. 


3 


6,414 





0.009 — 











— 


U.S.B. 




4 


2.016 





— 


IS 


9 


5 





— 


Ml. 


Brittle. 


5 


1,792 





— 


20 


8 


5 





— 


Ml. 


Very brittle. 


6 


















Bo. 


Protect iron 
from rust. 


7 


13,216 





— 


15 


1 


5 


— 


— 


Ml. 


Barely malle- 
able.' 


8 


9.6S0 


— 


0.002 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S.B. 




9 


_ 











Broke 





53.1 





C. J. 




IO 


11,424 





— 


16 


2 


4 


— 


— 


Ml. 


Brittle. 


ii 


7,000 


— 


0.004 


- 


- 


- 


- 


— 


U.S.B. 




12 


9,000 


_ 


0.002 


_ 














U.S.B. 




13 


- 
















Bo. 


Metal for but- 
tons. 


14 


4,256 





— 


14 


4 


3 


— 


— 


Ml. 


"White button 
metal. 


15 


— 





— 





Broke 





5S.9 


— 


C. J. 




16 


















Ri. 


Specific gravity 
of ingot, 7.215. 


17 


5 350 


— 


0.003 — 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S.B. 




10 


4,032 





- 


17 


11 


2 


- 


— 


Ml. 


Brittle. 


19 





_ 







Broke 





59.5 





C. J. 




20 


8,500 


— 


0.001 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S.B. 




21 


12,413 


_ 


0.009 


_ 











. 


U.S.B. 




22 




— 














Ri. 


Specific gravity 
of iugot, 7.299. 


23 


14,450 


— 


0.10 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S.B. 




24 


10,650 


_ 


S.04 
















U.S.B. 




25 


IS, 065 


— 


0.81 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S.B. 




26 


11,400 


- 


2.67 












U.S.B. 




27 


5,400 





26.51 








_ 





_ 


U.S.B. 




28 


31,018 


13 


— 


12 


23 


1 


— 


— 


Ml. 


Brittle. 


29 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


29.02 


27.39 


Ma. 






— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


62.8 


— 


C. J. 




3 1 









_ 






28.1 


27.3 


We. 





14 



158 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 

Bo. — Bolley. Essais et Recherches Chimiques, Paris, 1869. 

Cr.— Croockewit. Erdmann's Journal, XLV. 1848, pp. 87 to 93. 

C. J.— Calvert and Johnson. Phil. Mag., 18, 1850, pp. 354 to 359 ; 
ibid., 17, 185^9, pp. 114 to 121 ; ibid., 16, 1858, pp. 381 to 383. 

Ma.— Matthiessen.' Phil. Trans., 1860, pp. 161 to 184; ibid., 1864, 
pp. 167 to 200. 

ML— Mallet. Phil. Mag., Vol. 21, 1842, pp. 66 to 68. 

Ri.— Riche. Annales de Chimie, 30, 1873, pp. 351 to 410. 

U. S. B. — Report of Committee on Metallic Alloys of United States 
Board appointed to test iron, steel, etc. (Thurston's Inves- 
tigations.) 

We.— Weidemann. Pogg. Annalen, 108, 1859, pp. 393 to 407. 

Prof. Robert H. Thurston, who conducted the inves- 
tigations of the United States Board, makes the follow- 
ing note on the preceding table : — 

"Alloys having the name of Bolley appended are 
taken from Bolley's ' Essays et Recherches Chimiques/ 
which gives compositions and commercial names, and 
mentions valuable properties, such as are given in the 
columns of remarks, but does not give results in figures 
as recorded by other authorities. The same properties 
and the same name are accorded by Bolley to alloys of 
different compositions, such as those which in the column 
of remarks are said to be ' suitable for forging/ It 
might be supposed that such properties belonged to 
those mixtures and not to other mixtures of similar 
composition. It seems probable, however, that when 
two alloys of different mixtures of copper and zinc are 
found to have the same strength, color, fracture, and 
malleability, it will also be found that all alloys be- 



PROPERTIES OF COPPER-ZINC ALLOYS. 159 

tween these compositions will possess the same proper- 
ties, and hence that instead of the particular alloys men- 
tioned only suitable for forging, all the alloys between 
the extreme compositions mentioned also possess that 
quality. 

"In the figures given from Mallet under the heads of 
'order of ductility/ order of malleability/ 'hardness/ 
and 'order of fusibility/ the maximum of each of these 
properties is represented by 1 . 

"The figures given by Mallet for tenacity are con- 
firmed by experiments of the author with a few very 
marked exceptions. These exceptions are chiefly the 
figures for copper, for zinc, and for CuZn 2 (32.85 copper, 
67.1 5 zinc). The figures for CuZn 2 , as given by Mallet, 
can, in the opinion of the author, only be explained on 
the supposition that the alloy tested was not CuZn 2 
(32.85 copper, 67.15 zinc), but another containing a per- 
centage of copper probably as high as 55. The figure 
for the specific gravity (8.283) given by Mallet indi- 
cates this to be the case as does the color. The figure 
for ductility would indicate even a higher percentage of 
copper. The name 'watchmaker's brass' in the column 
of remarks must be an error, as that alloy is a brittle, 
silver-white, and extremely weak metal. 

"The figures of Calvert and Johnson and Riche, as 
well as those of the author, give a more regular curve 
than can be constructed from the figures of Mallet. 

"The specific gravities in Riche's experiments were 
obtained both from the ingot and from powder. In 
some cases one, and in some cases the other, gave high- 
est results. In the table under the head of ' specific 



1 60 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

gravity/ Riche's highest average figures are given, 
whether these are from the ingot or from fine powder, 
as probably the most nearly correet. The figures by 
the other method, in each case, are given in the column 
of remarks. The figures of Riche and Calvert and 
Johnson are scarcely sufficient in number to show defi- 
nitely the law regulating specific gravity to composition, 
and the curves from their figures vary considerably. 
The figures of the author being much more numerous 
than those of earlier experimenters a much more regular 
curve is obtained, especially in that part of the series 
which includes the yellow or useful metals. The irreg- 
ularity in that part of the curve which includes the 
bluish-gray metals is, no doubt, due to blow-holes, as 
the specific gravities were in all cases determined from 
pieces of considerable size. If they were determined 
from powder, it is probable that a more regular set of 
observations could be obtained, and that these would 
show a higher figure than 7.143, that obtained for cast- 
zinc. Matthiessen's figure for pure zinc (7.148) agrees 
very closely with that obtained by the author for the 
cast-zinc, which contained about 1 per cent, of lead. 

"The figures for hardness given by Calvert and 
Johnson were obtained by means of an indenting tool. 
The figures are on a scale in which the figure for cast- 
iron is taken as 1000. The alloys, opposite which the 
word "broke" appears, were much harder than cast- 
iron, and the indenting tool broke them instead of 
making an indentation. The figures of alloys contain- 
ing 17.05, 20.44, 25.52, and 33.94 per cent, of zinc 
have nearly the same figures for hardness, varying only 



BRONZE IN GENERAL. 161 

from 427.08 to 472.92. This corresponds with what 
has been stated in regard to the similarity in strength, 
color, and other properties of alloys between these com- 
positions." 



XV. 

BRONZE IN GENERAL. 

The alloys produced by the union of copper and tin 
are termed " bronze" in the actual sense of the word, if 
the copper is present in predominating quantity, while 
those in which the content of tin predominates are 
called "white metal." In order to modify the proper- 
ties of the alloys in a certain sense, both bronze and 
white metal are sometimes compounded with small 
quantities of other metals. 

In this section of our work we have to deal with 
bronzes in the strict sense of the word. It has been 
previously mentioned that the term bronze is frequently 
erroneously applied to mixtures of metals belonging 
really to the brasses, so that there is actually such a con- 
fusion of terms that many whose interest it is to have 
an accurate knowledge of alloys do not know what 
bronze actually is. 

The principal constituent of bronze in all cases is 
copper, the addition of tin only serving to modify its 
properties. Tin, though a very soft metal by itself, pos- 
sesses the characteristic property of imparting great 
hardness to copper, so that genuine bronze takes a fine 

14* 



162 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

polish, and castings of it can be worked very clean with 
the file. On account of these qualities it is especially 
adapted for a casting material, and its properties can be 
so changed that it will flow freely, or give a beautiful 
sound, or acquire the utmost degree of hardness. 

The ductility of bronze being but slight, only that 
containing very little tin can be converted into sheet by 
rolling, the operation succeeding satisfactorily at a red 
heat if the content of tin does not exceed 4 to 6 per 
cent. Bronze, as previously mentioned, being chiefly 
intended for casting, finds, on account of its hardness, 
much application in the machine industry for articles 
which cannot be made of iron or steel. 

Bronzes consisting of absolutely pure copper and tin 
show definite properties according to the quantity of 
the metals contained in them. However, in making a 
chemical analysis of commercial bronze, it will almost 
invariably be found to contain a small quantity of other 
metals. A sharp distinction should,, how ever, be made 
as to whether these admixtures are accidental or inten- 
tional. Besides iron, manganese, nickel, lead, and zinc, 
very small quantities of phosphorus, arsenic, sulphur, 
or antimony are sometimes found, and a small quantity 
of these bodies sufficing to considerably change the 
properties of the alloy, it is important to pay some at- 
tention to their influence. Before entering on a discus- 
sion of these properties, it may, however, be remarked 
that the difficulties many manufacturers find in obtain- 
ing alloys of determined qualities is due to the fact that 
they do not use as pure metals as possible by themselves 
but melt down with them certain quantities of old 



BRONZE IN GENERAL. 163 

bronze, which, as a rule, contains zinc, iron, or other 
foreign metals. 

A content of zinc acts upon the properties of bronze 
in various ways. Added to it in a very small quantity 
it has even a beneficial influence, the moulds being filled 
out sharper and the castings obtained freer from blow- 
holes. If, however, the addition of zinc be exceeded 
above a certain limit, the alloy loses the characteristic 
properties of bronze, and especially the warm color, 
which passes into a more or less dull brass yellow. Be- 
sides, bronze with too large a content of zinc does not 
acquire on exposure to the air the beautiful green color- 
ation termed genuine patina, but one shading into black. 
The addition of zinc must always be kept within very 
narrow limits; less than one-half per cent, of it con- 
tributes so essentially to the strength of the bronze that 
such an addition should be made in all cases where this 
property is especially desired. With an addition of up 
to 2 per cent, of zinc the properties of the alloy remain 
about the same, its elasticity being also increased to a 
considerable extent. With a slight increase of over 2 
per cent, of zinc, the hardness as well as the tenacity of 
the bronze decreases to a considerable extent, and the 
brass-like character of the alloy soon becomes apparent. 

An admixture of lead has in all cases an injurious 
effect upon the properties of bronze. Witli a content 
of one-half per cent, the lead begins to liquate from the 
bronze, which makes the castings turn out unequal and 
increases the oxidability of the alloy. A content of 
lead makes the bronze somewhat denser and more mal- 
leable, these properties being, however, of little value as 



164 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the alloy is exclusively intended for casting. The pe- 
culiar patina of a velvety -black color found upon old 
Chinese bronzes is said to be the product of a content 
of lead ; and it is actually a fact that all Chinese bronzes 
contain a certain quantity of lead. 

Iron affects the properties of bronze in a similar 
manner as zinc, imparting great hardness to it, and for 
this reason is frequently added to bronzes for axle-bear- 
ings and wherever they are to show great power of re- 
sistance. A content of iron has also considerable in- 
fluence upon the color and gives a peculiar white tone 
to the bronze. It further makes it more difficult of 
fusion, though the castings are faultless. 

An admixture of nickel increases the hardness of 
bronze to a considerable extent and decreases its 
tenacity. On account of its costliness many declared 
the use of this metal as an addition to bronze impracti- 
cable. It must, however, not be forgotten that at the 
utmost only 1 to 1 J per cent, of it are required to im- 
part the desired qualities to the bronze. Moreover it is 
not by any means the most expensive metal used as an 
addition to bronze, tungsten and titanium being also 
frequently employed for the purpose. These last-men- 
tioned metals seem, however, to possess no special prop- 
erties exerting a favorable influence upon bronze and, 
though the alloys have been frequently mentioned and 
recommended in various periodicals, they have not 
gained a foothold in practice, which cannot be ascribed 
to their costliness, because manufacturers requiring alloys 
completely answering certain purposes, are always will- 
ing to pay a good price for them. 



BRONZE IN GENERAL. 165 

An admixture of very small quantities of arsenic, 
antimony, and sulphur renders the bronze brittle, T ^ per 
cent, of either of these bodies sufficing for the purpose. 
Phosphorus exerting, as is well known, an injurious 
influence upon most metals and alloys, acts different in 
this respect as regards bronze, and, for this reason, the 
so-called phosphor-bronze will be discussed later on. 

The physical properties of bronze are also materially 
affected by other conditions than the chemical composi- 
tion, chief among which is the rapid or slow cooling off 
of the fused material, which exerts so powerful an influ- 
ence that the product with an equal chemical compo- 
sition may acquire an entirely different appearance. 
According to the content of tin the color of bronze 
varies between red and white, and with a considerable 
content of tin passes into steel-gray. Generally speak- 
ing, tin exerts a greater influence upon the color than 
zinc, the alloy with a comparatively small content of 
tin exhibiting no longer a red but a white color. 

Alloys containing 90 to 99 per cent, of copper retain 
a pure red color; with 88 per cent, of copper it rapidly 
changes to orange-yellow, and with 85 per cent, becomes 
pure yellow. With a decrease of the content of copper 
to 50 per cent, the respective alloys show a slightly yel- 
lowish-white color. It is a remarkable fact that alloys 
with a content of copper of between 50 and 35 per cent, 
are distinguished by a pure white color, while those con- 
taining up to Q~) per cent, of tin show a steel-gray color. 
With a still greater percentage of tin the color of the 
alloys again becomes pure white. Bronze of various 
compositions being extensively used in the construction 



16() THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of machines and the manufacture of ordnance, many 
physicists have occupied themselves with the determi- 
nation of the proportions of ductility and hardness of 
the various alloys. But, notwithstanding the many full 
researches, it cannot yet be said with absolute certainty 
when a bronze is hardest, most tenacious, most ductile, 
etc., and we have only approximate numbers for these 
proportions, which we briefly sum up in the following :- — 

Alloys with 1 to 2 per cent, of tin show nearly the 
same ductility as pure copper ; they can be worked in 
the cold under the hammer, but crack more readily than 
pure copper, this cracking showing itself especially in 
attempting to stretch a plate of the alloy under the 
hammer. The ductility decreases rapidly with an 
increase in the content of tin ; an alloy containing 5 per 
cent, of tin can only be worked with the hammer at a 
red heat, but soon cracks when it is attempted to ham- 
mer it in the cold; alloys containing up to 15 per cent, 
of tin can no longer be hammered even in a warm state. 
The figures above given show that tin injures the duc- 
tility of the copper. Its solidity is, however, consider- 
ably increased. Alloys with about 9 per cent, of tin 
show, according to most statements, the greatest strength 
of all bronzes, and in accordance with this, gun-metal 
has generally a content of tin approaching that limit. 
According to other statements alloys with about 15 per 
cent, possess the greatest hardness and strength. The 
maximum for hardness and brittleness lies between a 
content of 28 to 35 per cent, of tin. 

From the results of more modern researches in regard 
to the strength and hardness of bronzes, the following 



BRONZE IN GENERAL. 167 

may be deducted : The hardness increases constantly 
until the composition of the alloy has reached 72.8 parts 
of copper and 27.2 of tin. With an increase in the 
content of tin the hardness decreases, it being in a mix- 
ture of 33.33 parts of copper and 66.66 parts of tin 
nearly exactly the same as that of pure copper. Above 
this proportion of tin the hardness decreases consider- 
ably, and with a compound of 90 parts of tin and 10 of 
copper is but little more than that of tin. 

Alloys rich in copper undergo a peculiar molecular 
change by forging. By subjecting alloys containing 
somewhat less than 94 per cent, of copper to continued 
forging they become as hard as steel, but unfortunately 
acquire at the same time such a degree of brittleness 
that they can only be used for purposes where they are 
not exposed to strong shocks. 

Though the hardening of the bronzes by forging is 
remarkable, there is another phenomenon yielding still 
more remarkable results : by quickly cooling off red-hot 
bronze in cold water it almost completely loses its brit- 
tleness, and can then be used for many purposes, an 
alloy containing 84 parts of copper and 16 of tin being 
most suitable for the purpose. Even a quite thick 
article acquires a certain flexibility through its entire 
thickness, which it retains after forging. If it is desired 
to restore an article after tempering to its original hard- 
ness, it need only be brought to a red heat and slowly 
cooled. According to the above the behavior of bronze 
in this respect is just the reverse of steel ; the latter by 
quick cooling becoming very hard and brittle, and by 
slow cooling soft and malleable. The density and hard- 



168 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ncss of bronze decrease with quick cooling and increase 
with slow cooling, and, hence, bronze articles quickly 
cooled have a deeper sound, a fact well to be considered 
by bell-founders. 

The density and hardness, as well as the power of re- 
sistance against cracking, depend on the composition of 
the alloy as much as on the manner of cooling the cast 
article. 

According to practical experience the greatest strength 
is secured by endeavoring to obtain the crystals of the 
alloy as small as possible, even the material of the 
mould in which the casting is effected exerting a great 
influence upon the grain and through this upon the 
strength. Articles must be cast at a higher temperature 
in iron moulds than in sand moulds, one of 2912° F. 
(1600° C.) being required with the use of iron moulds, 
while one of 2552° F. (1400° C.) suffices with the use 
of sand moulds, especially for larger castings. 

Alloys suddenly subjected to a high pressure, as is the 
case with gun-metal, must have an especially high de- 
gree of density, the density being, however, not directly 
proportional to the composition, as will be seen from the 
following table: — 



BRONZE IN GENERAL. 



169 



Composition. 








Density. 


Copper. 


Tin. 




96.2 


3.8 


8.74 


94.4 


5.6 


8.71 


92.6 


7.4 


'8.68 


91.0 


9.0 


8.6Q 


89.3 


10.7 


8.63 


87.7 


12.3 


8.61 


86.2 


13.8 


8.60 


75.0 


25.0 


8.43 


50.0 


50.0 


8.05 



Bronze being exclusively used for casting, it is ' im- 
portant to say a few words in regard to the temperatures 
at which the various alloys become fluid. According to 
Kiinzel, to whose researches we are indebted for much 
information regarding the properties of bronze, the 
various alloys show the following melting points : — 



Composition. 








Melting point, 


Melting point. 






Copper. 


Tin. 


degrees F. 


degrees C. 


95 


5 


2520 


1360 


92 


8 


2354 


1290 


90 


10 


2282 


1250 


89 


11 


2228 


1220 


86 


14 


2100 


1150 


84 


16 


2012 


1100 


80 


20 


1868 


1020 



Articles cast of bronze contract in solidifying, as is 
the case with other mixtures of metals, the degree of 
contraction depending on the temperature of the alloy 



15 



170 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and its composition, and amounts to y-J-g- to ^ T of the 
bulk of the various mixtures. 

The difficulty of obtaining perfect castings is, how- 
ever, more increased by the chemical behavior of the 
alloys towards the oxygen of the atmosphere than by 
contraction. In subjecting the bronze to fusion, the tin 
shows greater affinity for oxygen than the copper, and 
hence by remelting the bronze several times, it becomes 
sensibly richer in copper by a portion of the tin being 
lost by oxidation. To prevent a change in the qualities 
of the alloy, a larger quantity of tin than the finished 
product is to contain is generally added, the volatiliza- 
tion of tin being equal to the excess added, so that the 
alloy obtained shows exactly the desired composition. 

Another effect of the oxygen of the atmosphere con- 
sists in the oxides of the constituent metals of the 
bronze — stannic oxide and cuprous oxide — dissolving in 
the alloy, whereby its strength and tenacity are consid- 
erably decreased. In the manufacture of ordnance a 
portion of the metal required is generally obtained by 
melting down old cannons. The mixture of metals thus 
obtained containing frequently large quantities of the 
metallic oxides in solution, the tenacity and strength of 
the new alloys are considerably impaired. 

The melted bronze shows another property frequently 
observed in other metals, especially in gold and silver : 
it can absorb a considerable quantity of oxygen but 
allows it to escape in a gaseous state on cooling. If 
now, as is done in most cases, the castings are rapidly 
cooled off, the bronze becomes so thickly fluid that the 
absorbed oxygen cannot escape, and the resulting cast- 



BRONZE IN GENERAL. 171 

ings are full of innumerable, though microscopically 
small, hollow spaces, which injure the density and 
strength of the alloy. 

The absorption of oxygen, as will be seen from the 
above, being very injurious to the qualities of the 
bronze, precautions have to be taken to protect the 
metal from the effect of oxygen in fusing as well as in 
casting. The best preventative against the absorption 
of oxygen is to protect the alloy by a layer of glowing 
charcoal, and to effect a reduction of any oxides formed 
by vigorous stirring of the fused alloy with a stick of 
green wood. Though oxidation is counteracted by these 
means, it is not possible to remove by them the oxygen 
reaching the alloy from oxygenous material. Phos- 
phorus has, however, been found an excellent agent for 
the deoxidation of the oxides dissolved in the metal, but 
it has to be added very carefully, since a small quantity 
of it in excess exerts great influence upon the properties 
of the alloy itself. In most cases an addition of yttVo" 
to yxro-Q suffices for the reduction of the oxides in solu- 
tion. 

The tin oxidizing more readily it is, as a rule, advis- 
able to fuse the copper first and then quickly introduce 
the tin, whereby the heat should be increased so as to 
keep the alloy very thinly-fluid, the union of the two 
metals being accelerated by these means. The melted 
mass should at the same time be vigorously stirred with 
wooden rods, which not only accelerates the mixing but 
also counteracts the oxidation of the tin. Even with 
the use of all the above-mentioned precautions, the loss 
in fusing and casting always amounts to several per 



172 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

cent, of the weight of the metals used ; work where the 
loss is only one to two per cent, may be called excellent, 
as in many cases it amounts to ten per cent. 

The loss of metal as well as the qualities of the cast- 
ings are also considerably affected by the construction of 
the melting furnace. The quicker the furnace can be 
heated to the temperature required for reducing the alloy 
to a fluid state the better it is for the purpose, for even with 
perfect protection against the action of oxygen, changes 
injurious to the homogeneity of the castings take place 
with long-continued fusion. If a bronze be intentionally 
kept in a fluid state for a long time, a white alloy very 
rich in tin is formed in it which is clearly perceptible in 
the castings. The alloy is no longer homogeneous, but 
actually consists of a mixture of several alloys differing 
very much in density, power of resistance, and strength, 
which seriously impairs the properties of the entire 
mixture. This separation or liquation of the alloy into 
two or more compounds occurs especially in mixtures 
most frequently used, i. e., such as contain between 5 
and 20 per cent, of tin ; from alloys containing a lower 
or higher percentage of tin, homogeneous castings are 
more readily obtained. 

Since the liquation of an alloy rich in tin is promoted 
by slow cooling, the melted mass, which has a tempera- 
ture of about 2552° F. must be cooled down as quickly 
as possible to 932° F., at which, according to experi- 
ence, the alloy richest in tin solidifies. This is, how- 
ever, connected with many difficulties, especially in 
casting large pieces, such as cannons and bells for 



MELTING AND CASTING OF BEONZE. 173 

which the perfect homogeneousness of the metal is an 
absolute necessity. 

The behavior of the solidified alloys towards the 
atmosphere varies according to their chemical composi- 
tion, i. e., they oxidize, on exposure to the air, in a 
shorter or longer time, acquiring thereby a color rang- 
ing from a beautiful green to black. This layer of 
oxide which contributes much to the aesthetic effect 
produced by an article of bronze is an important factor, 
especially to those occupied with casting statues, etc., 
and will be referred to later on. 



XVI. 

MELTING AND CASTING OF BRONZE. 

The quantity of bronze to be prepared at one time 
varies according to the article to be cast, and may 
amount to a few ounces or hundreds or thousands of 
pounds. Though the mode of preparing the bronze is 
the same in all cases, in the practice certain difficulties 
occur in casting small articles as well as large ones, 
which deserve attention. 

For casting small articles a finished alloy of the 
desired proportions of metals is generally used, it being 
very difficult to hit the exact composition required in 
preparing small quantities of bronze. The fusion, in 
this case, is always effected in crucibles, special care 
being required to prevent as much as possible oxidation 
of tin. The crucibles arc placed in a wind-furnace and 

15* 



174 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the surface of the bronze is kept carefully covered with 
pulverized coal, anthracite being best for the purpose on 
account of its great density. 

Attention has already been drawn to the fact that the 
temperature of the fused metal exerts a considerable 
influence upon the quality of the casting. Experience 
has shown that for small articles the bronze must not 
be heated too strongly, as otherwise the resulting casting 
is blown, and one blow-hole suffices to spoil it entirely. 
Articles to be subjected to hammering or stretching after 
casting must also not be cast too hot, in order to prevent 
them from acquiring a too coarsely crystalline structure. 

Small castings cool off rapidly, but the effect of this, 
especially if not uniform, is to make portions of the 
mass considerably harder in some parts than in others, 
which renders the mechanical manipulation difficult. 
It is therefore advisable to thoroughly heat the moulds 
before use, and to surround them with a bad conductor, 
for instance, ashes, and also cover them with a layer of 
the same material after finishing the casting. Moulds 
of cast-iron or brass are generally used for small cast- 
ings, which, in order to protect them, are coated with a 
mass consisting of lamp-black and oil of turpentine. 

The preparation of large quantities of bronze as 
required for casting bells, cannons, or statues is effected 
in reverberatory furnaces capable of holding ifp to 
10,000 pounds of bronze or more. The copper is first 
melted, and, when fluid, any old bronze to be used is 
added. When all is converted into a uniform mass, the 
tin, previously heated as much as possible, is introduced 
in small portions. Immediately before the introduction 



MELTING AND CASTING OF BRONZE. 



175 



of the tin, the fire must be increased in order to com- 
pensate for the consequent reduction of the temperature, 
and to keep the metal in a thinly-fluid state. Figs. 5 
and 6 show the arrangement of a reverberatory furnace 



Figs. 5 and 




especially adapted for melting not too large a quantity 
of bronze. F is the fire-box, and G the ash-pit. The 
metals to be melted are placed upon the trough-shaped 



176 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



hearth H, while the aperture D serves for the intro- 
duction of the charge and for taking samples. 



Figs. 7 and 8. 



■IIIIIIH! 




The finished bronze is run off through the aperture D. 
For large articles loam moulds are almost exclusively 



MELTING AND CASTING OF BRONZE. 177 

used, sand moulds being but seldom employed. While, 
as previously stated, it is advisable in casting small 
articles not to have the bronze too hot, for casting large 
works it should be very hot in order to render the pro- 
duction of uniform castings possible by keeping the 
mass in a fluid state for some time, and thus giving the 
gases evolved as well as the oxides a chance to rise to 
the surface. 

Figs. 7 and 8 show the construction of a furnace 
especially adapted for melting a large quantity of bronze, 
which is to be as uniform as possible. The furnace, 
shown in Fig. 7 in section, and in Fig. 8 in ground- 
plan, has a capacity of about 16,200 pounds of bronze. 
Its total length is 13 feet, and it is heated with wood. 
F is the fire-box, and A the ash-pit, while the metals 
are melted in the space B, between F and G. K is the 
stoking-channel, which can be closed by the slide 8. 
The aperture serves for the introduction of the large 
pieces of metal, and the openings on the side for adding 
smaller pieces. G is the tap hole closed during melting 
by a plug of clay. 

The base of the hearth in these furnaces is, as will be 
seen from the illustrations, trapeziform, though there 
are other constructions in which it is elliptical or oval 
or even circular, the latter form being frequently used, 
for instance, in casting statuary bronze. Figs. 9 and 10 
show the construction of such a furnace, 8 being the 
hearth, A the fire-box, and D the foundry-pit in which 
the mould is placed. The aperture above 8 serves for 
the introduction of the metals, and that above D, which 



178 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Figs. 9 and 10. 




is closed during the melting with a plug of clay, for 
miming off the fused metal. 



MELTING AND CASTING OF BRONZE. 179 

In a furnace of this kind up to 26,500 pounds of 
bronze can be melted for one casting. It is possible to 
construct furnaces of larger dimensions, but, on account 
of more uniform heating, it is recommended to use in 
this case several fire-places arranged on the circumfer- 
ence of the melting hearth. 

The different h'mds of bronze. — It will, of course, be 
readily understood that the composition of bronze must 
vary very much according to the purpose for which it 
is to be used. In the practice a large number of alloys 
is distinguished, which, according to their application, 
are known by various names. To retain this division 
would lead to the enumeration of a large number of 
names, and we must therefore restrict ourselves to those 
most frequently used, such as gun-metal, statuary bronze, 
speculum metal, etc. 

Before proceeding with the description of the prepa- 
ration of the alloys serving for these purposes, it will 
be convenient to briefly refer to the bronzes of pre-his- 
toric times. It is well known that bronze was exten- 
sively used by the ancients for coins, weapons, tools, and 
ornaments. It might be supposed, at first sight, from 
the castings of the ancients, that they possessed some 
very expeditious and simple means of making their 
enormous and numerous productions in this department ; 
but upon closer inspection this conclusion appears un- 
tenable, for many analyses of their alloys have demon- 
strated the fact that their bronzes were not a constant 
composition of copper and tin, but contained frequently 
foreign metals, which cannot be considered as intentional 
additions but onlv as accidental contaminations. Hence 



180 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the success of a bronze of good composition was, no 
doubt, at that time, more a matter of accident than is 
possible with our present knowledge in regard to alloys, 
and the analyses of old bronzes can only give us hints 
about the behavior of the metals in the presence of sub- 
stances to be considered as contaminations without, how- 
ever, contributing to the advancement of information in 
regard to the alloys. The researches made in modern 
times, especially as regards gun-metal, are so exhaustive 
in respect to the influence of the chemical composition 
of the alloy upon its physical qualities as to enable us 
to prepare alloys with any desired properties. 

While the older bronzes, especially those of Greek 
origin, consisted almost only of Copper and tin, in the 
older Roman coins considerable quantities of lead are 
frequently found, which must be considered as an inten- 
tional addition. Zinc seems to have first been intention- 
ally added to bronze in the beginning of the present era. 
The exact composition of bronze has only been deter- 
mined in modern times with the assistance of chemistry, 
the effect produced by the different elements upon the 
properties of the bronze, as well as the influence upon 
its physical qualities by rapid or slow cooling off, being 
now quite well understood. But that we have not yet 
arrived at a full knowledge of these properties is well 
seen from phenomena which in modern times have ex- 
cited the interest of all technologists, it being only ne- 
cessary to refer in this respect to phosphor-bronze and 
Uchatius's so-called steel-bronze. 



ORDNANCE OR GUN-METAL. 181 

XVII. 

ORDNANCE OR GUN-METAL. 

More money and labor have been spent on the study 
of this alloy than on any other, the governments of sev- 
eral of the larger countries having expended millions of 
dollars in experiments to find out the best alloys for the 
manufacture of ordnance. But that, notwithstanding 
all this, a final result has not yet been arrived at is best 
proved by the many different opinions, some diametri- 
cally opposed to each other, in regard to the value of, 
for instance, the previously mentioned steel-bronze. 

The properties demanded from a good gun-metal 
follow from the use of the cannons themselves. In 
firing a cannon an immense pressure, amounting to over 
2000 atmospheres, is suddenly developed. To resist 
this pressure the material must possess great tenacity, 
and cannons manufactured from bronze lacking this te- 
nacity burst generally with the trial-shots, for which es- 
pecially large charges of powder are used. Gun-metal 
must further possess a high degree of hardness, as in 
firing the projectile strikes once or several times against 
the walls of the piece, it being impossible to give the 
same size mathematically accurate to the calibre of the 
piece and that of the projectile. If the bronze be not 
sufficiently hard, the interior of the piece loses after a 
few shots its cylindrical form which is detrimental to 
the accuracy of the shot. Finally it must be considered 
that the gases evolved by the combustion of the powder 
10 



182 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

attack the substance of the piece itself, and, hence, the 
composition of the bronze must be such that this chem- 
ical action is reduced to a minimum. 

Briefly stated good gun-metal must be very tenacious, 
capable of resistance, hard, and indifferent towards 
chemical influences, conditions which vary much from 
each other and are difficult to combine. 

In order to obtain these properties all possible addi- 
tions have been made to the actual bronze (consisting of 
tin and copper), and analyses of ordnance metal of 
different centuries and various countries plainly show 
the efforts made to arrive at a correct composition of 
gun-metal by certain admixtures. In modern times the 
addition of foreign metals, with the exception of a small 
quantity of zinc or, in special cases, of phosphorus, 
seems to have been abandoned, the quality of the bronze 
being adapted to the desired purposes by suitable treat- 
ment in melting and casting. In older pieces a series 
of foreign metals is found, some of which, as for in- 
stance nickel and cobalt, must be considered as acci- 
dental contaminations, since the preparation of these 
metals in a metallic form has only been known since 
more recent times. Iron, if present in a considerable 
quantity, is, no doubt, an intentional addition, and a 
content of bismuth can be explained by the fact that in 
connection with arsenic it was formerly used as a flux in 
the bronze mixture. 

The content of tin in bronze suitable for ordnance 
varies between 9 and 12 parts of it to 100 parts of 
copper, ordnance bronze containing more tin, showing, 
as a rule, greater fusibility and hardness, but less elas- 



ORDNANCE OR GUN-METAL. 183 

ticity, and the resulting castings are not nearly as homo- 
geneous. For smaller pieces alloys containing 8 parts 
of tin to 100 of copper are generally used, while those 
for larger pieces have the above composition. 

So many details essential for the success of the opera- 
tion are connected with the melting and casting of alloys 
for the manufacture of pieces of ordnance, that a special 
volume would be required for a complete description of 
the various processes. We can, therefore, only give the 
merest outline, and must refer those especially interested 
to the many treatises published on this subject. , The 
principal requisite of an alloy answering all the demands 
of a good ordnance-bronze is the production of entirely 
homogeneous castings, which it is endeavored to attain 
by solidifying the alloy under conditions allowing of its 
uniform cooling off. The moulds are always placed in 
a vertical position, and the evil of the upper portions 
of the casting showing frequently a different composition 
from the lower, is counteracted by using an excess of 
bronze so that the finished casting has a long piece on top, 
the so-called "dead-head" or " sullage-piece," which 
is later on sawed off and remelted with a new charge. 
This dead-head contains the greater portion of the alloys 
of dissimilar composition, and also the so-called " waste" 
consisting of oxidized metal. 

In casting ordnance old cannons are frequently melted 
in, the practice in the opinion of many experts produc- 
ing a favorable influence upon the homogeneousness of 
the resulting new material. The loss of tin by oxida- 
tion is also smaller, since tin once united with copper 



184 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

does not oxidize as readily as in the preparation of new 
alloys. But in order to obtain a homogeneous product 
great experience is required, and after the metals are 
melted, samples must be taken and examined as to their 
qualities, so that if the composition be not correct it can 
be improved by a suitable addition of copper or tin or 
old bronze, as may be found necessary. A considerable 
time being, however, required for the newly added 
metals to form a homogeneous combination with the 
material already melted, great precaution is necessary to 
prevent the oxidation of the metals as much as possible. 

The temperature at which ordnance-bronze is cast also 
exerts considerable influence upon its physical proper- 
ties, one of about 2822° F. appearing to be the most 
suitable. Cannons cast at this temperature are distin- 
guished by great homogeneousness throughout the entire 
mass, and besides there need to be no fear of the sepa- 
ration of the so-called tin-spots, one of which, if located 
in a place especially subjected to strong pressure in firing, 
suffices to render the entire piece useless in a short time. 

Ordnance-bronze should be cooled off rapidly, this 
also decreasing the danger of the formation of tin-spots. 
Iron moulds are frequently used, but they must not be 
too cold, as otherwise the layers of bronze coming in 
immediate contact with the iron solidify so quickly as 
to prevent the mobility of the still fluid mass in the 
interior, which would produce an unequal tension of the 
molecules, in consequence of which the piece might 
burst with the first shot. In many ordnance-foundries 
sand moulds are used, there being a great diversity of 



ORDNANCE OR GUN-METAL. 185 

opinions as to which method of casting is the most suit- 
able. Cannons are now generally cast solid, and the 
cylindrical cavity is formed by boring out this solid 
mass. Sonie, however, consider it preferable to cast the 
piece over an iron mandrel, which is sometimes so ar- 
ranged that water can circulate in it in order that the 
parts nearest to it may quickly solidify and become as 
hard as possible. 

Steel-bronze. — The ordnance-bronze known under this 
name is prepared in the Austrian arsenals, the method 
of melting and subsequent treatment in casting being 
kept secret. It is only known that the bronze contains 
8 per cent, of tin, and that the casting is effected in cold 
iron moulds. The peculiarity of the process of manu- 
facturing ordnance from steel-bronze (also called Ucha- 
tius-bronze, after its inventor) consists in the piece after 
being finished to a certain extent being subjected to a 
peculiar mechanical treatment. The calibre of the piece 
is made smaller than it is finally to be, and is then 
gradually enlarged to the required diameter by steel- 
cylinders with conical points being forced through the 
cavity with the assistance of hydraulic presses. In con- 
sequence of this peculiar treatment the cavity is, so to 
say, rolled or forged, the bronze acquiring the greatest 
power of resistance in those places which in firing are 
subjected to the greatest pressure. 

The following table shows the composition of ord- 
nance-bronze of various times and different countries : — 



16* 



186 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 







Parts. 




Copper. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Zinc. 


Iron. 


Brass. 


United States . . 
France (modern) 
Prussia .... 
England . . . 
France (1780) . . 
Savoy (Turin, 1771) 
Russia (1819) 
Lucerne (Switzerlanc 

Cochin China . . 

China . - . . . 

Turkey (1464) . 


1) 

{ 
{ 


90 

90.09 
90.90 
89.30 

100 

100 
88.61 
88.929 
77.18 
93.19 
71.16 
89.58 
95.20 


10 

9.9 

9.1 

10.7 

12.0 

10.7 

10.375 
3.42 
5.43 

10.15 
4.71 


0.062 
13.22 


0.419 
5.02 

27.36 


0.69 

0.110 

1.16 

1.38 

1.40 


61.0 

6-0 



XVIII. 



BELL-METAL. 



The principal requisite of good bell-metal is a pure, 
full sound, which is, however, only obtained with an 
alloy showing besides great homogeneousness and hard- 
ness, a considerable degree of strength. Experience has 
shown that these qualities are obtained with a composi- 
tion containing from 20 to 22 per cent, of tin. The 
color of good bell-metal is a peculiar gray-white, differ- 
ing materially from that of ordnance-bronze and statu- 
ary-bronze. The bell-founder uses the appearance of 
the fracture as a sign of the correct composition of the 
bell-metal ; if the fracture be too fine the alloy is too 
rich in tin ; if too coarse-grained it contains too little tin. 



BELL-METAL. 187 

Bell-metal is brittle and cracks under the hammer, 
cold as well as heated. If it be repeatedly brought to 
a dark red heat and quickly cooled by immersion in 
water its brittleness is so far decreased that it can be 
hammered and stamped. It has been attempted to 
change the sound of bell-metal and improve it especi- 
ally in regard to its purity. The opinion was formerly 
held that an addition of silver adds to the beauty of 
the sound, though at present it is thoroughly understood 
that such is not the case. 

Independent of the quality of the material used the 
tone of a bell depends materially on its size and form ; 
the thickness of the walls and the proportion of height 
to diameter are also of importance for a beautiful and 
pure tone. The skill of the bell-founder lies not so 
much in finding the right composition of the alloy, this 
being thoroughly understood at the present time, as in 
giving the bell a shape corresponding to a certain tone, 
which is of special importance for chimes. 

The melting and casting of bell-metal is not as diffi- 
cult as that of ordnance-bronze, though great analogy 
exists between them. The copper is first melted down, 
and after heating the fused mass as much as possible 
the tin is introduced and an intimate mixture promoted 
by vigorous stirring. Many bell-founders do not add 
all the tin at once, but at first about two-thirds of it, 
and when this has formed a union with the copper the 
other third. 

It rarely happens that new materials are entirely used 
in preparing the bell-metal, old bells and orclnance- 
brOnze being worked in large quantities. The compo- 



188 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

sition of these should, however, be known so that the 
mean of the alloy be such as will yield a bell of the 
required quality. For this purpose it is best to melt 
small portions of the respective metals together in the 
same proportions in which they are to be fused on a 
large scale. From the quality of these test-pieces it 
will then be seen whether a change in the composition 
of the alloy is necessary. 

It is still more preferable to ascertain by a chemical 
analysis the centesimal composition of the metals since 
the appearance of the fracture, color, and degree of 
brittleness give rise to errors. 

It has been frequently observed that bells repeatedly 
remelted acquire a disagreeable tone. The principal 
reason for this change is found in the solution of oxide 
in the alloy. This evil can be overcome by deoxidizing 
the mixture of metals to which we will refer later on. 
While the composition of bell-metal for large bells is 
always within the above-mentioned limits, the material 
used for the manufacture of small tower-bells, table- 
bells, sleigh-bells, etc., varies very much, mixtures being 
frequently used which can actually not be classed as 
bell-metal, they being frequently only tin alloyed with 
a small quantity of copper and a little antimony. 

Chinese tam-tams or gongs are distinguished by a 
strong, far-reaching sound. The alloy of which they 
are made is nearly of the same composition as the ordi- 
nary bell metal, the difference in sound being due to 
mechanical treatment. As soon as the plates intended 
for the manufacture of tam-tams are well solidified they 
are withdrawn from the mould and introduced into a 



BELL-METAL. 



1; 



furnace where they are raised to a cherry-red heat. 
They are then inserted between iron disks and plunged 
into water and allowed to cool, after which they are 
withdrawn, and are so tenacious that they may be 
worked under the hammer. 

The following table shows the composition of some 
bell-metals : — 





Parts. 




Copper. 


Till. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


Silver. 


Iron. 


Normal composition . < 


80 

78 


20 
22 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Alarm bell at Rouen . . 


76.1 


22.3 


1.6 


— 


1.6 


— 


" " Ziegenhain 


71.48 


33.59 


— 


4.04 


— 


0.12 


" " Darmstadt 


73.94 


21.67 


_ 


1.19 


0.17 


— 


" " Reichenhall 














(13th century) 


80 


20 


— ■ 


— 


— 


— 


Tam-tam 


78.51 


10.27 


— = 


0.52 


0.18 


— 


r 


10 


4 


1.5 


— 


0.5 


— 


Bells of Japanese origin -i 


10 
10 


2.5 
3 


0.5 
1 


1.33 

2 


i 

2 


— 


{ 


10 











For the fabrication of small clock-bells, table-bells, 
sleigh-bells, etc., an alloy giving a clear and pure tone 
has to be used. Experience has shown that bell-metal 
with about 22 per cent, of tin gives the finest tone, and 
can therefore be suitably used for small bells. How- 
ever it is an object to use as cheap an alloy as possible 
for these purposes by a reduction of the content of the 
expensive copper. The following table will suffice to 
show the composition of such alloys : — 



190 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 





Parts. 




Copper. 


Tin. 


i 1 

Zinc. : Lead. Silver. 
1 


Anti- 
mony. 


Bis. 
m u th . 


House-bells . -. . 

1 ' smaller 
Clock-bells, German 

" Swiss . 

" Paris 
Sleigh-bells . . '. 
White-table bells . 


80 

75 

73 

74.5 

72.0 

84.5 

17 


20 
25 
24.3 
25 

26.56 
15.42 
800 
7 


1 1 IS I M I 
I 15 I 1 I I 1 


1.44 


0.1 
1 


5 



Algiers metal (metal cV Alger). — This metal has a nearly 
pure white color and takes a beautiful polish. It can 
scarcely be classed with bell-metal, its composition 
having nothing in common with it. It is composed of 
copper 5 parts, tin 94.5, and antimony 0.5. The anti- 
mony is very likely added to give greater hardness. 

Large bells are cast in loam moulds. The figures or 
designs with which the bell is to be ornamented are 
placed in the mould, the portions which have been left 
imperfect in casting being mended after the cast bell is 
cold. Small bells are generally cast in sand moulds, 
though recently iron moulds are frequently used. 

Silver bell-metal. — This alloy suitable for small bells 
is distinguished by a beautiful silver-clear tone, and a 
nearly white color. It is composed of: 

Parts. 





I. 


II. 


III. 


Copper 


. 40 


41.5 


41.6 


Tin . 


. 60 


58.5 


58.4 



BRONZES FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES. 191 

XIX. 

BRONZES FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES. 

As previously stated the properties of bronze may be 
varied within very wide limits according to the purpose 
for which they are to be used. In the following a few 
of the most important bronzes used in the various 
branches of industry are given. To enter on a detailed 
description of all these alloys is scarcely practicable, 
since many manufacturers preparing bronzes for their 
special purposes use alloys which, as regards their cen- 
tesimal composition (in respect to copper and tin), show 
considerable variations, and sometimes contain other 
metals as additions, which, according to the assertions 
of the manufacturers, impart to them exactly the pro- 
perties desired. 

According to the purposes for which the bronzes are 
to be used they may be designated, besides those already 
mentioned, as machine bronze (for bearings and pieces 
subject to severe friction), coin and medal bronze, and 
ormolu. The last alloy is chiefly used for small 
articles of art, and is by many classed among statu- 
ary bronze, but incorrectly so, because the latter, as 
will be explained later on, cannot be termed a bronze in 
the actual sense of the word. Besides the above-men- 
tioned varieties of bronze, there remains to be mentioned 
the speculum metal, which was formerly much used for 
mirrors of optical instruments, but at the present its ap- 



192 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

plication is limited, these mirrors being now made by a 
cheaper process and at the same time of greater power. 

Medal and coin-bronze. — A bronze suitable for these 
purposes must have a certain degree of ductility, be 
able to receive a true impression, and wear well. In 
many countries the baser coin is now made of a bronze- 
like alloy instead of pure copper as formerly, it being 
better calculated to resist the injuries it is likely to re- 
ceive in circulation. The bronze used in casting medals 
contains a variable proportion of tin, ranging generally 
from 4 to 10 per cent., according to the depth of the im- 
pression. Bronzes containing about 8 per cent, of tin 
are distinguished by great hardness, but can be rendered 
sufficiently soft for stamping by heating to a red heat 
and tempering. This variety of bronze is chiefly used 
for medals which, besides being distinguished by artistic 
execution, are to have considerable durability. If the 
impression is to be quite deep or if the medals are to be 
stamped several times they must be repeatedly annealed. 

An addition of a very small quantity of lead and 
zinc has a favorable effect upon the metal to be used for 
medals. It renders it softer, so that it can be worked 
with greater ease, and its color and fusibility are also 
improved. 

The baser coin of many countries (France, Switzer- 
land, Belgium, Italy, etc.) consists of a bronze of vari- 
able composition. The copper coin manufactured in 
France since 1852 consists, for instance, of copper 95 
parts, tin 4, and zinc 1. This alloy has stood the test 
of time, coins stamped in 1852 still showing the im- 
pression in all its details, which is sufficient proof of its 



BRONZES FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES. 193 

durability. Coin-bronze as made by the Greeks and 
Romans contained from 96 parts of copper and 4 of tin 
to 98 parts of copper and 2 of tin. Chaudet has shown 
that the first of these alloys can be used for fine work, 
obtaining medals of this composition of very perfect 
polish while sufficiently hard to wear well. 

Many medals, as is well known, do not show the color 
of bronze, but a pleasant brown color subsequently pro- 
duced by oxidation. A bronze which, on account of its 
pale-red color, is especially adapted for figures stamped 
in relief upon medals consists of a mixture rich in cop- 
per, which at the same time is very flexible, so that 
medals with figures in high relief can be stamped with- 
out an expense of great power. This bronze consists of 
copper 97 parts, tin 2, and lead 1. 

Medals whose size does not exceed a certain limit are 
at present stamped from sheet rolled out to the required 
thickness, and the disks thus obtained stamped with the 
impression; this method is also used in making coins. 
For large medals with impressions in very high relief 
plates are prepared by casting, the model of the medal 
being used in order to obtain plates already somewhat 
raised or depressed on the respective places. As soon as 
the pieces cast in sand are solidified, they are thrown 
into cold water to give them the required degree of soft- 
ness. After subjecting them to one or two pressures in 
the stamping-press, they must be again annealed in 
order to prevent cracking of the edges. 

Ormolu (Or moalu). — This alloy is much used for 
small statues, candlesticks, inkstands, etc., but serves 
also for purely artistic purposes. It also finds a very 
17 



194 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

interesting application in the manufacture of articles 
coated with enamel. The enamel is placed in shallow 
cavities chiselled in the surface of the bronze and fused 
by heating the latter. Enamel of various colors can be 
used, each color being terminated by the edges of the 
cavities, and the articles after heating appear coated with 
the tightly-adhering enamel. Such work is termed email 
cloisonne. It became known in Europe through Chinese 
articles, but at present the European product by far 
surpasses the Chinese. 

Below we give the composition of a few bronzes 
which can be classed with ormolu ; they are much used in 
the manufacture of small articles of art, which manu- 
facture .is carried on to an enormous extent in Paris 
and Vienna. 

Actual ormolu. — This bronze is distinguished by a 
pure golden-yellow color, and requires but very little 
gold for gilding. It is much used for the finest bronze 
articles of luxury. It is composed of copper 58.3 parts, tin 
16.7, zinc 25.3. 

Bronze fen* small castings. — For articles to be prepared 
in large quantities, it is desirable to have a bronze which 
becomes very thinly fluid in the heat and fills out the 
moulds. Cast-iron moulds are generally used, and the 
articles, as a rule, turning out very clean, can be at once 
brought into commerce after slightly mending the parts 
which have been left imperfect in casting. A bronze of 
excellent quality for this purpose is composed of copper 
94.12 parts, tin 5.88. 

Gold-bronze. — For many articles which are to present 
a beautiful appearance without being too expensive, it 






BRONZES FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES. 195 

is scarcely practicable to provide them with a coating of 
genuine gold. An effort must, therefore, be made to 
impart to the allov to be used a color resembling as 
closely as possible that of gold. A mixture possessing 
these properties in a high degree is composed of copper 
90.5 parts, tin 6.5, and zinc 3.0. This alloy retains its 
beautiful gold color on exposure to the air, but loses it 
rapidly if exposed to both air and water. Articles 
manufactured from it, if kept in a room, retain their 
color, and in the course of time act like all genuine 
bronzes, i. e., they become covered with the characteris- 
tic green coating known as genuine patina, which is so 
hiffhlv valued on account of bringing: out the .beauty of 
the contours. 

Bronze to he gilded. — Every kind of bronze can be 
gilded, the gold adhering with great tenacity. An ex- 
ample of this is furnished in the equestrian statue of the 
Emperor Marcus Aurelius, standing in front of the capi- 
tol at Rome, which still shows traces of the gold with 
which it was at one time entirely coated. In making 
castings to be subsequently gilded, it is advisable to use 
an alloy which is distinguished by a beautiful gold color, 
such alloy, as previously mentioned, requiring the 
smallest possible quantity of gold. An alloy answering 
the purpose is composed of copper 58.3 parts, tin 16.7, 
zinc 25.3. 

In many places, especially in Paris, much jewelry is 
made of bronze. The articles being generally turned 
out by pressing and finally gilded, the bronze used must 
have a certain degree of ductility and allow of being 
readily gilded. A mixture answering these demands, 



196 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and of which the greater portion of the Paris bronze 
jewelry is made, consists of copper 8 parts, tin 7. 

Bronze which can be rolled. — A bronze containing 4.5 
to 7 parts of tin to 100 parts of copper can be readily 
rolled out to sheets at a red heat. Such bronze-sheets 
are at the present time frequently substituted for copper- 
sheathing of vessels, as they are more durable. 

Machine-bronze. — In this collective term are included 
a great number of alloys with very variable properties, 
and which have actually nothing in common except that 
they are used for certain parts of machines. Many of 
these mixtures of metals — for some of them can scarcely 
be called bronzes — must be as hard as possible in order 
to resist wear, others must possess great strength so as 
not to yield under shocks or pressure, while still others 
must have the property of showing, even under a heavy 
load, but little frictional resistance when in contact with 
other metals. 

Bronzes of ordinary composition differ but little as 
regards their properties from other cheaper metals and 
mixtures of metals, and, on account of their higher 
price, are but little used in the manufacture of parts of 
machines, red brass being more frequently employed. 
The so-called white metal, which is distinguished by 
great hardness and comparative cheapness, finds, how- 
ever, much application for bearings. The white metals 
most frequently used in the manufacture of machines 
consist of alloys very rich in tin, containing besides this 
metal antimony and a small quantity of copper. 

Alloys for bearings. — The alloys for bearings of heavy 
axles, especially such as revolve rapidly, for instance 



BRONZES FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES. 197 

bearings of railroad wheels, are, as a rule, very rich in 
copper (between 80 and 90 per cent.), and must, there- 
fore, be classed among the bronzes. The alloys richest 
i'n copper can be forged in the heat, while those with a 
smaller content of copper lack this valuable property. 
In the annexed table the composition of a few impor- 
tant alloys belonging to this group and the purposes for 
which they are generally used are given. We would, 
however, remark that nearly every large machine-shop 
uses alloys of varying composition for the same purposes. 
This variation can only be explained by the difference 
in the quality of the metals worked, for it is evident 
from what has already been said in regard to the in- 
fluence of small quantities of foreign metals upon the 
quality of the alloys, that a machine-shop having only 
copper containing a small quantity of iron at its dis- 
posal, will use a different composition from one working 
cupper free from iron. 

The same holds good as regards all other contamina- 
tions, and it would be a great achievement if the metals 
serving for the preparation of the alloys could be pro- 
cured chemically pure at a low price. The result would 
be a considerable decrease in the number of alloys used 
for certain purposes, and the same mixtures would be 
employed for the same purposes in all factories. 



17 



198 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Metals for bearings. 







Parts. 






Copper. 


Zinc. 


Tin. 


For locomotive axles . 


86 


14 




" " "... 


82 


8 


10 


" railroad car axles 


82 


18 


. — . 


a u c< 


84 


16 


— 


a a a 


75 


2 


20 


11 various axles 


73.7 


2.1 


14.2 


" " " (medium hard) 


69.55 


5.88 


21.77 


" " " (hard) . 


82 


2 


16 


" " " (very hard) 


88.8 


11.2 


— 



Machine metals for various purposes. 








Par 








Copper. 


Zinc. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


For cog-wheels 


91.3 


8.7 







" punches .... 


83.3 


16.7 


— 


— 


" steam-whistles 


80 


2 


17 


— 


it a a 


81 


2 


16 


— 


" cocks .... 


88 


2 


10 


— 


" boxes for wagon wheels . 


87.7 


2.6 


9.7 


— 


" stuffing boxes . 


86.2 


3.6 


10.2 


— 


" mechanical instruments . 


81.2 


5.1 


12.8 


— 


" files .... 


64.4 


10 


17.6 


8.6 


n a 


61.5 


7.7 


30.8 


— 


" weights .... 


90 


2 


8 


— 


" castings to be gilded 


79.1 


7.8 


13.1 


— 


(< <( a cc 


77.2 


7 


15.8 


— 


" shovels (malleable) 


50 


16.4 


33.6 


— 


it (C 


3 


2 


1 


— 


" buttons (white) 


57.9 


36.8 


5.3 


— 


" sheet for pressed articles 


63.88 


30.55 


5.55 


— 


" small castings 


94.12 


— 


5.88 


— 


u a a 


90 


10 


— 


— 


11 piston rings 


84 


8.3 


2.9 


4.3 


" pump barrels . 


88 


2 


10 


— 


" eccentric straps 


90 


2 


8 


— 



BRONZES FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES. 199 

Bronze for articles exposed to shocks and very great 
friction. — Copper 83 parts, tin 15, zinc 1.5, lead 0.5. 

Bronze for valve-balls and other constituent parts to 
which other parts are to be soldered with hard solder. — 
Copper 87 parts, tin 12, antimony 1. This alloy is 
flexible and of a red, granular fracture. 

Bronze resisting the action of the air. — For this pur- 
pose Bath recommends a mixture of 576 parts of copper, 
48 of brass, and 59 of tin. 

A bronze for the same purpose can, however, also be 
obtained by mixing together 26 parts of copper and 2 
of tin. 

A beautiful bronze, which can be used for most pur- 
poses as a substitute for brass and also as hard solder 
for copper, is obtained, according to Eisler, by mixing 
together 16 parts of copper and 1 of tin. It is golden- 
yellow, can be hammered and stretched, is harder and 
more plastic than brass and copper, nearly as hard as 
wrought -iron, and runs more easily and thinner than 
brass. 

Chinese bronzes. — Some bronzes exhibited at the last 
Paris Exhibition attracted special attention, not only on 
account of their artistic beauty, but also on account of 
the unusually deep bronze color, which, in many speci- 
mens, presented a beautiful dead-black appearance. The 
color, which was doubtless intended to contrast with the 
silver of the filigree work, was proved to belong to the 
substance proper of the bronze and not to have been 
artificially produced by an application upon its surface. 
Analyses of the different specimens of the bronze gave 
the following results : — 



200 TIIE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Parts. 





I. 


II. 


III. 


Tin . 


. 4.36 


5.52 


7.27 


Copper 
Lead . 


. 82.72 
. 9.9 


72.09 
20.31 


72.32 
14.59 


Iron . 


. 0.55 


1.73 


0.28 


Zinc . 


. 1.86 


0.67 


6.00 


Arsenic 


— 


trace 


trace 



These alloys contain a much larger proportion of lead 
than is found in ordinary bronze; and it is noticeable 
that the quantity of lead augments precisely with the 
intensity of the bronze color, proving, as before stated, 
that the latter is due to the special composition of the 
bronze. 

Some of the specimens contain a considerable propor- 
tion of zinc, but the presence of this metal, instead of 
improving the appearance, seemed rather to counter- 
balance the effect of the lead. 

In imitation of the Chinese bronze some alloys were 
made of the following composition : — 





I 




II. 


Tin 


. 5.5 


parts. 


5.0 parts 


Copper 


. 72.5 


" 


83.0 " 


Lead 


. 20.0 


1 1 


10.0 " 


Iron 


. 1.5 


a 


— " 


Zinc 


. 0.5 


a 


2.0 " 



Xo. I. produced an alloy exceedingly difficult to work, 
and, without .giving any superior results as regards color, 
furnished castings which were extremely brittle. 

No. II., on the contrary, gave an alloy exactly resem- 
bling the Chinese bronze. Its fracture and polish were 
identical, and when heated in a muffle it quickly assumed 



BRONZES FOE VARIOUS PURPOSES. 201 

the peculiar dead-black appearance so greatly admired 
in the Chinese specimens. 

Hitherto it has been found difficult, if not impossible, 
to obtain this depth of color with bronzes of modern art, 
since the surface scales off when heated under similar 
conditions as No. II. 

Japanese bronzes. — An analysis of Japanese bronzes 
made by M. E. J. Maumene gave the following results : — 



Copper 


. 86.38 


80.91 


88.70 


92.07 


Tin . 


. 1.94 


7.55 


2.58 


1.04 


Antimony- 


. 1.61 


0.44 


0.10 


1.04 


Lead 


. 5.68 


5.33 


3.54 


1.04 


Zinc 


. 3.36 


3.08 


3.71 


2.65 


Iron 


. 0.67 


1.43 


1.07 


3.64 


Manganese 


. 0.67 


trace 


1.07 


3.64 


Silicic acid 


. 0.10 


0.16 


0.09 


0.04 


Sulphur . 


. 0.10 


0.31 


0.09 


0.04 


Waste 


. 0.26 


0.79 


0.21 


0.56 



All these alloys show a granulated texture, are blis- 
tered on the interior surface, and sound on the exterior 
surface. In the presence of an abundance of antimony 
their color is sensibly violet, and red in the presence of 
iron. The specimens were cast thin, from 0.195 to 
0.468 inch, and the mould was well filled. 

Old Peruvian bronze. — An old chisel, weighing about 
7 ounces, found in Quito, and which had evidently been 
used for working trachyte,* showed according to Bous- 
singault the following composition : Copper 95.0 parts, 
tin 4.5, lead 0.2, iron 0.3, silver traces. 

* A nearly compact, feldspatliic, volcanic rock, breaking with a 
rough surface, and often containing crystals of glassy feldspar, 
with sometimes hornblende and mica. 



202 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

A chisel brought by Humboldt to Europe from a 
silver mine worked by the Incas consists of copper 94 
per cent., tin 6 per cent. Charlon ascribes the hardness 
of the tools used by the Peruvians in mining, which 
consisted of copper 94 per cent, and tin 6 per cent., to 
the presence of a small quantity of silicium. 

A Turkish bronze basin examined by Fleck was com- 
posed of copper 78.54 parts, tin 20.27, lead 0.54, 
iron 0.19. 

An antique bronze weapon in the form of a chisel, 
which was found near Bremen, was composed of copper 
85.412 parts, tin 6.846, iron 0.346. 



XX. 

SPECULUM METAL. 

Alloys, composed of two-thirds copper and one-third 
tin, take a beautiful polish and can be used as mirrors. 
At the present time such alloys are only used in the 
construction of mirrors for optical instruments, especi- 
ally for large telescopes, though they are being gradually 
displaced by glass mirrors. 

Good speculum metal should be perfectly white, with- 
out a tinge of yellow, have a fine-grained fracture, and 
be sound and uniform, and sufficiently tough to bear 
the grinding and polishing without danger of disinte- 
gration. A composition answering all purposes must 
contain at least 65 to GQ per cent, of copper. The 
specula made by Mudge contained from 32 parts of 



SPECULUM METAL. 203 

copper and 16 of tin to 32 of copper and 14.5 of tin. 
A little tin is lost in fusion. It has been frequently 
attempted to increase the hardness of speculum metal 
by additions of arsenic, antimony, and nickel. With 
the exception of nickel these additions have, however, 
an injurious effect, the specula readily losing their high 
lustre, this being especially the case with larger quanti- 
ties of arsenic. 

It would seem that the actual speculum-metal is a 
combination of the formula Cu.Sn, and has the follow- 
ing centesimal composition : — 

Copper 66.6 

Tin . . . ... . . 33.4 



100.0 



According to David Ross the best proportions are: 
copper 126.4, tin 58.9, i. e., atomic proportions. He 
adds the molten tin to the fused copper at the lowest 
safe temperature, stirring carefully, and securing a uni- 
form alloy by remelting. 

The so-called tin-spots which sometimes separate when 
ordnance-bronze is incorrectly treated form an alloy simi- 
lar in composition to speculum metal ; it has, however, 
not a pure white color, such as is found in those con- 
taining 31.5 of tin. By increasing the content of copper, 
the color shades gradually into yellow, and with a larger 
content of tin into blue. It is dangerous to increase the 
content of tin too much, as besides the change in color 
the alloy becomes brittle and cannot be further worked. 
The following table shows the composition of some 
alloys used for speculum-metal. We would, however, 



204 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



remark that the standard alloy is undoubtedly the best 
for the purpose : — 





Parts. 




Copper. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Arsenic 


Other metals. 


Standard alloy 


68.21 


31.79 










Otto's .... 


68.5 


31.5 


— 


— 




Kichardson's . . 


65.3 


30 


0.7 


2 


2 silver. 


Little's .... 


65 


30.8 


2.3 


1.9 




Sallit's .... 


64.6 


31.3 


— 


— 


4.1 nickel. 


Chinese speculum 












metal .... 


80.83 


— 


— 


— 


8.5 antimony. 


Old Roman . . . 


63.9 


19.05 


— 


— 


17.29 lead. 



XXI. 



PHOSPHOR-BPvONZE. 

Ix the actual sense of the word phosphor-bronze can- 
not be considered an alloy containing a certain quantity 
of copper, but it is rather a bronze subjected to a pecu- 
liar treatment with the use of combinations of phos- 
phorus. Many excellent phosphor-bronzes contain 
but a very small quantity of phosphorus, which exerts 
no essential influence upon the qualities of the alloy. In 
such alloys the phosphorus has exerted its influence 
during the preparation. 

It has been previously mentioned that bronze fre- 
quently contains a considerable quantity of cuprous 
oxide in solution, which is formed by direct oxidation 



PHOSPHOR-BRONZE. 205 

of the copper during fusion, and that the admixture of 
this oxide injures to a great extent the strength of the 
alloy. If now the melted bronze be treated with a 
substance exerting a powerful reducing action, as, for 
instance, phosphorus, a complete reduction of the 
cuprous oxide takes place, the pure bronze acquiring 
thereby a surprisingly high degree of strength and 
power of resistance. If exactly the quantity of phos- 
phorus required for the complete reduction of the oxide 
has been used, no phosphorus will be found in the alloy, 
but the latter must nevertheless be called phosphor- 
bronze. Hence it will readily be seen that phosphor- 
bronze is not. a special alloy, but that every kind of 
bronze can be converted into it. With the use of com- 
binations of phosphorus phosphor-bronze is, therefore, 
deoxidized bronze. 

Phosphor-bronze has long been known to chemists, 
but its valuable qualities as a material to be used in con- 
struction were first made known by Montefiori, Levi, 
and Kiinzel, who discovered the alloy in 1871. Besides 
reducing any oxides dissolved in the alloy, the phos- 
phorus exerts another very material influence upon its 
properties. The ordinary bronzes consist of mixtures 
in which the copper actually forms the only crystallized 
constituent, the tin crystallizing with great difficulty, 
and the alloy in consequence of this dissimilar condition 
of the two metals is not as solid as it would be if both 
constituents w T ere crystallized. The presence of phos- 
phorus is useful in giving the tin a crystalline character, 
which enables it to alloy itself more completely and 
18 



206 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

strongly with the copper, the result being a more homo- 
geneous mixture. 

If so large a content of phosphorus be added that it 
can be authenticated in the finished phosphor-bronze, 
the latter must be considered as an alloy of crystallized 
phosphor-tin with copper. By increasing the content 
of phosphorus still more, a portion of the copper also 
combines with the phosphorus, and the bronze then con- 
tains, besides copper and tin, combinations of crystal- 
lized copper-phosphide with phosphide of tin. The 
strength and tenacity of the bronze do not suffer by a 
greater addition of phosphorus, but its hardness is con- 
siderably increased, so that many phosphor-bronzes are 
equal in this respect to the best steel, and some even 
surpass it in general properties. 

The content of phosphorus is imparted to the bronze 
by an addition of copper-phosphide or phosphide of tin, 
both these phosphor-metals being sometimes used at the 
same time. They must be especially prepared, the best 
processes being briefly as follows : — 

Copier-phosphide is prepared by heating a mixture of 
4 parts of super-phosphate of lime, 2 parts of granu- 
lated copper, and 1 part of finely-pulverized coal in a 
crucible at not too high a temperature. The melted 
copper-phosphide, which contains 14 per cent, of phos- 
phorus, separates on the bottom of the crucible. 

According to another method copper-phosphide is 
prepared by adding phosphorus to copper-sulphide solu- 
tion and boiling, adding sulphur as the sulphide is pre- 
cipitated. The precipitate is carefully dried, melted, 



PHOSPHOR-BRONZE. 207 

and cast into ingots. When of good quality and in 
proper condition it is quite black. 

Phosphide of tin is prepared in the following manner : 
Place a bar of zinc in an aqueous solution of chloride 
of tin, collect the sponge-like tin separated and bring it 
moist into a crucible, upon the bottom of which sticks 
of phosphorus have been placed. Press the tin tightly 
into the crucible and expose it to a gentle heat. Con- 
tinue the heating until flames of burning phosphorus 
are no longer observed on the crucible. After the oper- 
ation is finished a coarsely-crystalline mass of a tin- 
white color, consisting of pure phosphide of tin, is 
found upon the bottom of the crucible. 

Phosphor-bronze is prepared by melting the alloy to 
be converted into it in the usual manner, and adding 
small pieces of copper phosphide and phosphide of tin. 

The properties of correctly prepared phosphor-bronze 
are as follows : Its melting point is nearly the same as 
that of ordinary bronze. In cooling it shows, however, 
the phenomenon of passing directly from the liquid into 
the solid state without first becoming thickly fluid. In 
a melted state it retains a perfectly bright surface, while 
that of ordinary bronze is always covered with a thin 
film of oxide. 

If phosphor-bronze be subjected to continued melting 
no loss of tin takes place, but the content of phosphorus 
decreases slightly. 

The chief properties of phosphor-bronze are its extra- 
ordinary tenacity and strength ; in a cold state it can be 
rolled, stretched, and hammered. Its strength is double 
that of the best ordinary bronze. It is especially used 



208 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

for articles which are to show great strength and power 
of resisting external influences, for instance, the action 
of sea-water. 

Bronze with a content of tin of about 4 per cent, is 
especially suitable for the manufacture of sheet ; with up 
to 5 per cent, of tin it can be used in a forged state for 
gun-barrels and ordnance. Beautiful fire-arms of such 
bronze were exhibited at the last Vienna Exhibition. 

Bronzes with a content of tin between 7 and 10 per 
cent, have the greatest hardness and are especially 
adapted for the manufacture of axle-bearings, cylinders 
for steam fire-engines, cog-wheels, and generally for 
parts of machines requiring great strength and hardness. 
Phosphor-bronze possesses the property of acquiring, by 
exposure to the air for a short time, a beautiful, tightly- 
adhering patina, and can, therefore, be suitably used for 
cast- works of art. According to the purpose for which 
the bronze is to be used from 0.25 to 2.5 per cent, of 
phosphorus is added. In the following a few analyses 
of different kinds of phosphor-bronze are given :— 





I. 


II. 


III. 


Copper 


. 90.34 


90.86 


94.71 


Tin . 


. 8.90 


8.56 


4.39 


Phosphorus 


0.76 


0.196 


0.053 



The following are Kirkaldy's figures for tenacity and 
ductility of phosphor-bronze wire of No. 16 Birming- 
ham gauge. 



PHOSPHOR-BRONZE. 209 

Phosphor-bronze wire No. 16. 





Load at fracture. 


. a 


No twists 


Materials. 




ic bo 

c a 


before 








breaking. 














Unannealed. 


Annealed. 


S^ 






Per sq. 


Per sq. 


Per sq. 


Per sq. 


Per 


Unan- 


An- 




mm. 


in. 


mm. 


in. 


cent. 


nealed. 


nealed. 


f 


72.3 kil 


46 tons 


34.7 kil. 


22 tons 


37 5 


6.7 


SO 


Phosphor- 


85.1 " 


54 " 


33 6 " 


21 3 " 


34 1 


22.3 


52 


brouze of 


85 2 " 


54 1 " 


37 5 " 


23.8 " 


42.4 


13 


124 


several ] 


97.7 " 


62 1 " 


42 8 " 


27 2 " 


44 9 


17 3 


53 


proportions. 


1122 " 


71.2 " 


41.7 " 


26.5 " 


46.6 


17 3 


66 


L 


106 3 " 


67.6 " 


454 " 


2S.9 " 


42. 8 


15.0 


60 



Cast phosphor-bronze. 



Reduction 
of section. 


Elastic limit. 


Ultimate resistance. 


Per cent. 


Per sq. mm. 


Per sq. iu. 


Per sq. mm. 


Per sq. in. 


8.4 

1.5 

33.4 


16.65 kil. 
17.38 " 
11.6 " 


10.6 tons 

11.05 " 

7.2 " 


37.0 kil. 
32.5 " 
31.3 " 


23.5 tons 

20.6 " 
19.9 " 



According to Thurston five sorts of phosphor-bronze 
are considered to answer all requirements. 

0. Ordinary phosphor-bronze of 2 per cent, of 

phosphorus. 

1. Good phosphor-bronze of 2 J per cent, of phos- 

phorus. 
These two numbers are in all cases superior to ordi- 
nary bronze and steel. 

2. Superior phosphor-bronze of 3 per cent, of phos- 

phorus. 

18* 



210 THE METALLIC ALLOYS, 

3.. Extra phosphor-bronze of 3 J per cent, of phos- 
phorus. 
4. Maximum phosphor-bronze of 4 per cent, of 
phosphorus. 

These three, according to Delalot, are superior to any 
other bronzes. Above No. 4 phosphor-bronze is use- 
less, below Xo. it is inferior to common bronze and 
steel. Nos. 3 and 4 are comparatively unoxidizable. 

Bronze for telephone lines. — E. Van der Ven* has in- 
stituted a careful investigation on wires of phosphor- 
bronze and silicon-bronze. The wires experimented 
with contained, according to chemical analysis made for 
him by M. Van Eyndhoven, in me case of the phos- 
phor-bronze : Copper 95.5 per cent., phosphorus 2.6 per 
cent., with small quantities of tin, manganese, and silicic 
acid ; in the silicon bronze : Copper 92.2 per cent., sili- 
cium 0.91 per cent., together with small quantities of 
tin, manganese, and antimony. 

The practical results of Dr. Van der Ven's researches 
are that phosphor-bronze has about 30 per cent, of the 
conducting power of copper, silicon-bronze about 70, 
while the steel as used in wires has only about 10.5 per 
cent. Comparing their tenacity, as also very carefully 
determined by him, with that of steel, he finds that a 
wire of the latter material, of 2 millimetres diameter, 
with quadruple security and the conventional sag of 0.7 
millimetre, can have a stretch from pole to pole of 130 
metres, while the stretch, under the same conditions of 
a wire 1 millimetre in diameter would for phosphor- 

* Musee Teyler, and Electrotecli. Zeitsch. 1883. 



STATUARY BRONZE. 211 

bronze be 106 metres, for silicon-bronze 91 metres. 
These alloys, with a diameter of 1.18, and of 0.77 
millimetres respectively, have the same electrical resist- 
ance as the steel wire of 2 millimetres resistance. The 
relatively short stretch which in general increases the 
expense of construction and maintenance is less costly 
in cities, where at short distances the roofs of buildings 
offer points of suspension for telephone wires. It is 
thus self-evident that the bronze wires are preferable to 
those of steel, whose resistance demands a much larger 
section ; the more, since the network of lines suspended 
in the air cannot be counted among the ornaments of a 
large city. To this result may be added the statements 
made by M. Bede, at the Paris Electrical Congress, con- 
cerning the practicability of the use of phosphor-bronze 
wire. A phosphor-bronze wire of 0.8 millimetre (cost- 
ing, too, the same as steel of 0.2 mm.) would, on account 
of its high elasticity, coil up, before it has fallen 4 metres 
from its original position, so rapidly that on breaking it 
would ordinarily not strike the ground, and hence would 
be less dangerous. On account of non-oxidation there 
is no loss of diameter. 



XXII. 

STATUARY BRONZE. 

For casting statues the actual bronze can be advan- 
tageously used, and many antique statues are composed 
of this material. But in modern times a mixture of 



212 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

metals is used which besides copper and tin — the con- 
stituents of actual bronze — contains a quantity of zinc, 
the alloy thus formed being actually an intermediary 
between genuine bronze and brass. The reason for the 
use of such mixtures must partially be sought in their 
cheapness as compared with genuine bronze, and par- 
tially in the purpose for which the metal is to be used. 
A statuary bronze which thoroughly answers the pur- 
pose must become thinly fluid in fusing, fill the moulds 
out sharply, allow of being readily worked with the file, 
and must acquire a beautiful green color, the patina, on 
exposure to the air for a short time. 

But the actual bronze, even if highly heated, does 
not become sufficiently thinly fluid to accurately fill out 
the moulds, and has the further disadvantage of yield- 
ing homogeneous castings with difficulty. Brass by 
itself is also too thickly fluid, and lacks the requisite 
hardness to allow of the line mending of those parts 
which have been left imperfect in casting. 

Alloys containing zinc and tin, besides copper, can, 
however, be so prepared that they become very thinly 
fluid, and yield fine castings which can be readily worked 
with the file and chisel. The most suitable proportions 
seem to be a content of zinc of from 10 to 18 per cent, 
and one of tin of from 2 to 4 per cent. In regard to 
hardness statuary bronze is a mean between genuine 
bronze and brass, it being harder and tougher than the 
latter, but is surpassed in these properties by the 
former. 

Statuary bronze being chiefly used for artistic pur- 
poses, its color is of great importance. By small varia- 



STATUARY BRONZE. 213 

tions in the content of tin or zinc, which must, however, 
be always kept between the indicated limits, the color 
may be shaded from orange yellow to pale yellow. 
With an excessive content of tin the alloy becomes 
brittle and difficult to chisel, and by increasing the con- 
tent of zinc the warm tone of color is lost, and the 
bronze does not acquire, on exposure to the air, a fine 
patina. 

Though the alloys best adapted for statues are defi- 
nitely known at the present time, it happens sometimes 
that many large castings do not exhibit the right quali- 
ties. Their color is either defective or they do not ac- 
quire a beautiful patina or are difficult to chisel. These 
evils may be due either to the use of impure metals or 
to the treatment of the alloy in melting. On account 
of the large content of zinc there is a considerable loss 
in melting, amounting even with the most careful work 
to at least 3 per cent., and sometimes reaching 10 per 
cent., and it is evident that in consequence of this loss 
the alloy will show an entirely different composition 
from what it should have according to the quantity of 
metal used in its preparation. 

The color of the alloys, as mentioned above, quickly 
changes by variations in their compositions. The fol- 
lowing table gives a series of alloys of different colors 
suitable for statuary bronze :— 



214 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Copper. 


Zinc. 


Tin. 


Color. 


81.42 


11.28 


4.30 


red-yellow. 


84.00 


11.00 


5.00 


orange-red. 


83.05 


13.03 


3.92 


t i 


83.00 


12.00 


5.00 


a 


81.05 


15.32 


3.63 


orange-yellow. 


81.00 


15.00 


4.00 


" 


78.09 


18.47 


3.44 


a 


73.58 


23.27 


3.15 


" 


73.00 


23.00 


4.00 


pale orange. 


70.3(5 


26.88 


2.76 


pale yellow. 


70.00 


27.00 


3.00 


" 


65.95 


31.56 


2.49 


a 



According to cTArcet the best bronze for statues con- 
sists of copper 78.5 parts, zinc 17.2, tin 2.9, and lead 
1.4, or of copper 164 parts, zinc 36, tin 6, and lead 3. 

In the following table will be found the composition 
of a few celebrated statues : — ■ 



Column Vendome (Paris) 
Column of July (Paris) 
Henry IV. (Parish . . . 
Keller's Louis XI V. . . 

Napoleon I 

The Shepherd, Potsdam 

Palace 

Bacchus, Potsdam Palace 
Germanicus, Potsdam 
Augsburg bronze . . . 

Munich bronze .... 



Copper. 



89 20 
91.40 
S9.C2 
91.40 
75 00 



S8 6S 
S9.34 
89.78 
S9.43 
94 74 
77.03 
92 SS 



Zinc. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Iron. 


Nickel. 


50 


102) 


10 






5.60 


1 60 


1 40 


— 


— 


4 20 


5.70 


0.4S 


— 


— 


5 53 


1.70 


1.37 


- — 


— 


20.00 


300 


2.00 


— 


— 


1 2S 


9.20 


0.77 








1 63 


7 50 


1.21 


0.18 


— 


2.35 


616 


1 33 


— 


0.27 





8.17 


1.05 


0.34 


0.19 


0.54 


1.64 


0.24 


— 


0.71 


19 12 


91 


2.29 


0.12 


0.43 


0.44 


4.18 


2.31 


0.15 


— 



Anti- 
mony. 



Melting and casting of statuary bronze. — On account 
of the oxidability of the bronze used for statues, certain 
precautionary measures must be observed in melting in 
order to reduce the loss to a minimum. For melting: 



STATUARY BRONZE. 215 

small quantities crucibles are used, but for casting large 
statues reverberatory furnaces, the principal arrange- 
ment of which has been described on pp. 174-76. 

The operation is commenced by heating the furnace to 
a red heat, and then quickly introducing the copper. 
The latter being melted, it is covered with a layer of 
coal and the previously-heated zinc added. Immediately 
after the introduction of the latter the tin is added, and 
the fused mass frequently stirred with wooden poles in 
order to prevent, by the products of distillation evolved 
from the wood, the oxidation of the metals and to pro- 
mote the homogeneity of the alloy. 

Before using the metal for casting, many founders 
draw it in a very thinly fluid state into a pan or kettle 
standing in front of the tap-hole, and allow it to stand 
for some time in order to separate on the surface any 
oxide still contained in the alloy, which otherwise would 
injure the purity of the casting. After the layer of 
oxide is removed, the clay-plug closing the discharge- 
aperture in the bottom of the pan is removed and the 
metal allowed to run into the mould placed in the pit 
directly in front of the furnace. 

Loam-moulds can only be used for large castings, and 
it being inipo sible to previously heat them, the fused 
metal is introduced from below and gradually rises to 
the top. When it runs from the apertures in the top of 
the mould and from the vent-holes the mould has been 
successfully filled. 

The following table* is a list of about 140 different 
alloys of copper and tin, giving some of their mechanical 
and physical properties : — 

* Prepared originally for United States Board; Committee on 
Metallic Alloys. Report, Vol. I. 1879, p. 390. 



216 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Properties of the Alloys of 
Comparison of 





Atomic 
formula. 


Composition 

of original 

mixture. 


Composition 

by 

analysis. 


Specific 
gravity. 


Color. 


Fracture. 


s 












E3 

to 




Cu. 
100 


Sn. 


Cu. 


Sn. 








1 


- 





- 


- 


8.791a 
S.S74& 


Copper-red 


Fibrous 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
S 
9 


— 


100 00 
100 00 
l-'O.OO 
100.00 
100.00 
100.00 
100.00 
100.00 


0.00 
0.00 
0.00 
0.00 
0.00 
0.00 
0.00 
0.00 


- 


- 


8.667 
8.921 

8.794 
8.921 
8.952 

8.672 


Tile-red 


Earthy 


10 
11 
12 


SnCu % 


98.59 
98.10 
9S.04 


1.41 

1.90 
1.96 


97.89 


1.90 


8.564 


Eed 


Vesicular 


13 


— 


9S.00 


2.00 




- 


- 







14 
15 


— 


97.50 
96.97 


2.50 
3.03 


— 


— 


8.511 


Eed 


Vesicular 


16 
17 


SnCu 48 


96.27 
96.00 


3.73 

4.00 


96.06 


3.76 


8.649 
8 947 


Reddish- 
yellow 


Vesicular 


18 
19 


— 


95.00 
94.10 


5.00 
5.90 


— 


— 


— 


Golden- 
yellow 





20 


- 


94.00 


6.00 


- 


- 


8.939 








21 

22 
23 

24 
25 


SllCu25 

SuCu 24 


93.98 
93.17 

92. SO 

92.50 
92.00 


6.02 
6. S3 

7.20 

7.50 
S.OO 


- 





8.S20 

8.694 

8.6S4 


Reddish- 
yellow 


Vesicular 


26 


- 


91.75 


S.25 


— 


- 


— 








27 


- 


91.74 


S.26 




- 


- 








PROPERTIES OF COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



217 



Copper and Tin. 
several authorities. 



u 

9 

£ 
a 


&■§" 
p. a 


i ® 

5- 3 

3 33 
® S 

O 


13 £ - 

> s 
33^ 


Is-? 
fl'S 

cS 33 si 


33 C 

o X 

6-.-S 

O) — 

o 


1* 

o 


gfi-a 


o 


© 

a 


Remarks. 


1 

2 
3 

4 
5 

e 

7 

8 
9 

10 
11 
12 

13 

14 

15 

16 
17 
IS 

19 

20 

21 

1-1 
28 

24 
25 

26 
27 


27,500 
55,101 

24,252 
32,000 

28,540 

27.900 


1 


30.S 

100.1 
70.3 

21.9 
43.2 


10 

301 

602. S 


2 


16 


81.1 

73.6 


93.16 

79.3 
62.46 

19.6S 


U.S.B. 

M. 
Ma. 

C. J. 

Cr. 

Mar. 

Mar. 

We. 

Na. 

Ma. 

U.S.B. 
Bo. 

La. 

U.S.B. 
W. 

U.S.B. 
Ri. 

w. 

Bo. 
Ri. 

Ma. 

C J. 

U.S.B. 

U.S.B. 
Bo. 

W. 

Bo. 


a. Specific grav- 
ity of bar. 

b. Specific grav- 
ity of turnings 
from ingot. 

Cast copper. 
Sheet copper. 

Mean of 9 sam- 
ples. 

Defective bar. 
Can be forged 

like copper. 
Ramrods for 

guns. 

Defective bar. 
Resists action of 

hydrochloric 

acid. 

Annealed and 
compressed. 

Hard, malle- 
able. 

Pieces of ma- 
chines. 

Specific gravity 
after repeated 
tempering. 

Bronze for me- 
dals. 

Shows separa- 
tion of metals 
when examin- 
ed with a lens. 

English ord- 
nance. 



19 



218 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Properties of the Alloys of 







Composition 


Comji 


)>ition 






of original 


by 


s 


Atomic 
formula. 

• 


mixture. 


aua 


ysis. 


^ 


Cu. Sn. 


Cu. 


Sn. 


2S 




91.70 


S.30 






29 


^ 


91.66 


S.33 


— 


— 


:o 


SuCU2Q 


91. 9 


8.51 


— 


— 


31 


— 


91.30 


8.70 


— 


— 


32 


— 


90.91 


9.09 


— 


— 


33 





90.90 


9.10 








34 





T0.73 


9.27 


— 


— 


35 


— 


90.10 


9.90 


— 


— 


36 




90 00 


10.00 


90.27 


938 


37 




90.00 


10.C0 


- 


- 


3S 


_ 


90.00 


10.00 


— 


- 


39 





90.00 


10.00 








40 


— 


89.30 


10.70 


— 


— 


41 




S9.29 


10.71 


- 


- 


42 


— 


S9.29 


10.71 


- 


- 


43 


' 


S9.29 


10.71 





— 


44 


— 


S9 23 


10.77 


— 


— 


4". 


S.iC 15 


89.00 


11.00 


— 


— 


46 


SllCUjg 


sS97 


11.03 


— 


— 


47 




88. $9 


11.11 





_ 


4- 





88.39 


11.61 


— 


— 


49 





SS.00 


12.00 


— 


— 


50 





S7 65 


12.35 


— 


— 


51 


— 


87.50 


12.50 


— 


— 


52 


_ 


86. SO 


12.40 








53 


SnCu 12 


86.57 


13.43 


S7.J5 


12.73 


54 


- 


S6.21 


13.79 


- 


- 


a") 


- 


S6.00 


14.00 


- 


- 


56 




85.71 


14.29 






57 


— 


85.09 


14.91 


— 


— 


58 


SuCu 10 


8 f.33 


15.67 


— 


— 


:><> 


— 


84.31 


15.6S 


— 


— 


60 


— 


S4.29 


15.71 


— 


— 



Specific 
gravity. 


Color. 


S.793 




8.669 

8.S75 


Grayiah- 

yellow 


8.935 




S.953 





S.313 





S.353 





S.S4 
S.S25 





8.523 





— 






Fracture. 



Earthy 



S61S ' Grayisl,- 

yullow 

S.6Sla Mottled- 
S.9435 | white and 
yellow 



S.S7 



S.S7 

8.S32 ! 

8.561 Rvddixh- 

yello\v,l 



Earthy 



Finely 
vesicular 



Finely 
crystalline 



PROPERTIES OF COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



219 



Copper and Tin. — Continued. 



u 

IS 

£ 


u -B 
p. a 

■J? ^ in 
Hi 


zs 

7*3 

5 


-52 


aj — -a 
3 a ca 


3 2~ 

5 — 
O 


* * 

O 


© 
6 


b.S2 
II II 

6 


.a 


Remarks. 


28 
29 
30 
31 

33 

31 
35 

3(3 

37 
38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 
44 
45 
46 

47 
4S 
49 
50 

51 

52 
53 

.04 

55 

56 
57 
58 
59 
60 


32,093 

26,860 

37 68S 
25,7S3 
26,011 

31,100 
29,430 

44.071 
36,064 


2 


18.0 

7.3 
13.09 


639.. iS 
772 92 

S 


6 


15 


" 


12.10 
10.15 

8.S2 


B>. 
Bo. 
C. J. 

Ho. 

Mus. 

Bo. 

Bo. 

Bo. 

U.S. B. 

De. 

Ei. 

Bo. 

Bo. 

W;i. 

Wa. 

Wa. 
Bo. 
Mi. 
C. J. 

Wa. 

Ma. 

La. 

Ma. 

U.S B. 

W. 
U.S. B 

w. 

Mas. 
Ma. 
Ri. 
C. J. 

Ml. 


Ordnance metal. 
8-pouuder guns. 

Toothed wheels. 

Prussian ord- 
nance. 

Ordnance metal. 

French ord- 

[nance. 
Compressed ord- 
nance bronze. 

After repeated 
compression. 

Railroad car 
bearings. 

Ordnance metal 

Small bar cast 
in iron mould. 

Small bar cast 
in clay mould. 

Mean of 12 gun- 
heads. 

Ordnance metal. 

M'-an of S3 gun- 
heads. 

Gun-metal. 

a. Specificgrav- 
ity of bar. 

b. Specific grav- 
ity of liue turn- 
ings. 

Densest of all 
alloys (?) 
(Riche). 

Axle-tree bed, 
Seraing loco- 
motive. 



220 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Properties of the Alloys of 



Atomic 
formula. 



SnCu 9 



SnCn 8 
SnCu 8 



SnCu 7 

SiiCut 



SnCu 6 
SnCu 
SnCu 6 



SuCu. 



SnCu 5 
iuCu 5 



SnCu 4 
SuCu 4 
SuCu 4 
S11C114 



Composition 

of original 

mixture. 



Cu. 



84.00 



83.30 
S2.81 



82.50 
S2.00 



81.15 
81.10 



80.00 

S0.OO 
80.00 

80.00 

80.00 

79.20 
79.02 
78.97 

7S.00 
77.50 

76.32 

76.31 
76.29 
76 20 

75.20 

75.00 
72.91 

72.90 

72.S0 
72.50 

70.00 
68. S2 

6S.2S 
68.27 
68 25 
6S.21 
6S.21 
67.50 



Sn. 



16.70 
17.19 



17.50 
18.00 



18.S5 
18.90 



20.00 

21.00 
20.00 

20.00 

20.00 

20.80 
20 9S 
21.03 

22.00 
22.50 

23.68 
23.69 
23.71 
23. SO 

21.80 

25.00 
27.09 

27.10 

27.20 
27.50 

30.00 
31. IS 
31.72 
31.73 
31.75 
31.79 
31.79 
32.50 



Composition 

by 

analysis. 


Specific 
gravity. 


Cu. 


Sn. 


- 


- 


- 


— 


— 


8.462 


— 


_ 


8.792 
S.927 


— 


_ 


8.S6 
8.459 


80.43 


19.57 


S.953 

8.7 


— 


— 


8.850 


- 


— 


8.955 


80.95 


18.S4 


8.740 




— 


8.927 
8.90 

S.72S 




— 


8.917 


76.64 


23.24 


8.565 
8.91 
8.750 
9.1 (?) 


- 


- 


8.87 


— 


- 


8.965 

S.575 
S.925 


69.84 


29 89 


8.932 


68.5S 


31 26 


8. SO 
8.948 
8.938 
8 400 


— 


— 


8.907 



Color. 



Reddish- 
yellow, 2 
Reddish-gray 



Yellowish- 
red, 2 



Reddish-gray 



Yellowish- 
red, 1 

Pinkish-gray 



Bluish-red 



Reddish- 
white 

Bluish. red 
Reddish- 
white 

White 



White 
Ash-gray 



White 



Fracture. 



Finely 
crystallin< 



Finely 
crvstallii 



Finely 
granular 



Vitreous 
conchoidal 

Finely 
granular 
Smooth 

Vitreous 



Conchoidal 



Conchoidal 
Conchoidal 



PROPERTIES OF COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



221 



Copper and Tin. — Continued. 



£ 


£% g 

e ^h 

o §.2" 


s- " 

o 


■5 ° 
•s 2 


ou w O 
■5'T3-0 

2 = a 

3 S * 


5 


Order of fusi- 
bility (Mallet). 

Conductivity 
for heat, 
silver = 100. 


:£ © 

"> £ II 
" * - 

3 ® £ 

-3 h _ 


o 

3 

<5 


Remarks. 


61 

62 

63 

61 

65 

66 

67 

6S 
69 

70 
71 

72 

73 

74 
7.) 

76 

77 
78 

79 
£0 
81 
82 

83 

84 
85 

86 

87 
88 

80 
90 
91 
92 

93 

94 
9.") 
96 


34,018 
36.200 

39,648 
35,739 

32,9S0 

30,464 

24,650 
22,010 

21,728 

10.976 
6,493 

5,5S5 

1.620 
1,568 

2,536 


3 
4 

5 






0.32 

0.40 

0.03 
0.02 

0.00.' 
0.009 


5 
4 

3 

2 

1 

Broke 
6 


7 
10 

11 

12 

13 
14 


14 
13 

12 

11 

10 
9 


20.7 
15.5 


- 


Bo. 

B>. 

Ml. 

U.S.B. 
It. 

Ri. 
Ml. 

Th. 
Bo. 

Mus. 
Hi. 

Ri. 

U. S. B. 

Ri. 
Ri. 
Ml. 

B... 
U.S.B. 

U. S. B. 
Ri. 
Ml. 

Bo. 

Bo. 

W. 

Ri. 

C. J. 

Ml. 

U.S.B. 

U.S.B. 

Bo. 

Ri. 

C. J. 
U.S.B. 

Ml. 

Bo. 
U.S.B. 


Carriage wheel 
boxes. 

Jeweler's pun- 
[dies, 
[series. 
Strongest of 
Annealed and 
tempered. 

Chinese goner. 
Bells of Reich- 

euhall,300 v'rs 
[bid. 
Annealed and 

tempered. 
After repeated 

compression. 

Annealed and 
[tempered. 

Best bell-metal. 

Church hell in 
Reichenhall, 
600 years old. 

Swiss clock- 
bells, brittle. 

Mirror of tole- 
[scope. 

Mirror metal. 



19* 



222 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Properties of the Alloys of 







Composition 


Composition 










Atomic 


of original 
mixture. 


by 
analysis. 


Specific 


Color. 


Fracture, 


s 


formula. 








' 


gravity. 






s 

e 


Cu. 


Sn. 


Cu. 


Sn. 




97 — 


66 67 


33.33 








Steel-gray 




98 





66.67 


33 33 





— 


— 








99 


— 


65.00 


35.00 


65.34 


34.47 


8.947 


Bluish-gray 





100 


— 


62.50 


37.50 


— 


— 


8.956 


Dark gray 


Radiated 

crystalrine 


101 SnCu 3 


61.79 


38.21 


— 


— 


8.954 







102 SuCu 3 


61.79 


36.21 


— 


— 


8.96 


. 





103 SnCu 3 


61.71 


3S.29 


— 


— 


8.970 


Dark gray 


Rough, 
stony 


104 SnCn 3 


61.69 


38.31 


— 


— 


8.539 


(< 


Tabular 


















crystalline 


105 


— 


60.00 


40.00 


— 


— 


— 








106 


— 


57. ."0 


42.50 


— 


— 


8.7S1 


Light gray 


Stony 


107 Sn 5 Cu 12 


56.32 


43.68 


56.70 


43.17 


8.6S2 


" 


" 


108 — 


52.50 


47.50 


— 


— 


8.643 


(C 


" 


• 1 
109 SnCu 2 


51. S4 


48.16 








8 57* 





___ 


110 SnCu 2 


— 


— 





— 


8.512 








111 SuCu, 


51 .83 


48.17 


— 


— 


8 533 








112 


SuCu 2 


51.80 


4S.20 


51.62 


48.09 


8.560 


Light gray 





113 


SnCn 2 


51.75 


4S.25 


- 


- 


8.416 


Grayish- 
white 


Vitreous 
conchoidal 


114 


— 


50.00 


50.00 

















115 


— 


50.00 


"50.00 


— 


— 


8.79 


Bluish-white 





116 Sn 7 Cu 2 


47.95 


52.05 


47.61 


52.14 


8.442 


Grayish- 
white 


Fine grain 


117 — 


47.50 


52.50 





— 


8.446 


«« 


Crystal 


118 Sn„Cu 3 


44.67 


55.33 


— 


— 


8.30 


" 





119 | Sn 3 Cu 3 


44.63 


55.37 


44.52 


55.28 


8.312 


Grayish- 
white 
tc 


Crystal 


120 — 


42.50 


57.50 








8.437 


(i 


12J Sn 3 Cu, 


41 74 


5S.26 


42.38 


57.30 


8.302 


" 


<< 


122 - 


40.00 


60 00 


— 


— 


— 





. 


123 Sn 5 Cu 6 


39.20 


60. SO 


38.37 


61.32 


8.1S2 


Grayish- 
white 


Crystal 


124 1 — 


37.50 


62.50 


_ 





8.101 


!< 


125 SnCu 


34.99 


65.01 








8 12 








126 


SnCu 


34.98 


65.02 


— 


— 


7.992 








127 


SnCu 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.072 








128 


SuCu 


34.95 


65.05 


34.22 


65. SO 


8.013 


Grayish- 
white 


Crystal 


129 


SnCu 


34.92 


65.0S 








8.056 


Tabular 


















crystalline 


130 


— 


33.33 


66.67 


— 


— 


— 


White 


' 


131 


— 


32.50 


67.50 


— 


— 


7.931 


Grayish- 
white 


Crystal 


132 


Sn 4 Cu 3 


28.72 


71.28 


25.85 


73. SO 


7.91S 


" 


" 


133 


— 


27.50 


72 50 


— 


— 


7.915 


" 


'• 


134 


— 


25.00 


75.00 


— 


— 


7.S13 


Bluish-white 


" 



PROPERTIES OF COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



223 



Copper and Tin. — Continued. 



* 

£ 

d 


•1 


• ® 

® s 

o 


® £ 
P4 


® 

S ® to 

®U«-9 

■S'd'd 
u a a 
« *3 * 

a 


45 05 
*"* 

ss 

n- ' — • 

© >> 

u . - 
45 — 

° 


o >, 

1- — 

05 — 

"S3 
o 


© 

& s 

if! 

§£ 1 

-3 1- — 

a o-~ 


*»» . 

— o 
b.2 2 

?! II 
B ® ^ 

a"® 1 £ 

:** x 


© 

a 
<1 


Remarks. 


97 

9S 

99 

100 

101 
102 
10:5 

104 

105 

106 

107 
108 

109 
110 

in 

112 

113 

114 
115 

116 

117 

lis 

119 

120 
121 
122 
123 

124 
1 25 
126 
127 
12S 

129 

130 

131 

132 
1 33 

131 


1 017 
2,201 
1,561 

68S 
1,120 

1.377 
1,455 

2,555 

3.S0S 

725 

1,525 

2,407 

3,010 

2.0^8 
3,910 

2,820 

2,400 

3,371 
3,136 

2,322 

1,648 

4,380 








0.002 
0.001 

0.003 

0.001 
0.003 
0.001 

0.003 

0.003 
0.003 

0.003 

0.006 
0.007 

0.005 

0.004 

0.005 

0.014 
0.011 


Broke 

7 

Broke 
9 

Broke 
11 


16 
15 

9 


8 
7 

6 


49.4 
42.S 

41.5 


- 


W. 

Mns 

U. S.B. 
U.S. B. 

C.J. 

Ri. 

U.S. B. 

Ml. 

Bo. 
U.S. B. 
U.S.B. 
U.S.B. 

Ri. 

Cr. 

C. J. 

U.S.B. 

Ml. 

Mas. 
W. 

U.S.B. 

U.S.B. 
Ri. 

U.S.B. 

U.S.B. 
U.S.B. 

B». 
U.S.B. 

U.S.B. 

Ri. 

C. J. 

Cr. 
U.S.B. 

Ml. 

W. 

U.S.B. 

T. 
T. 
W. 


Hard, uniform. 

Greatest den- 
sity-^ weakest. 

White bell- 

[metal. 

Weakest under 
transverse 

[stress. 

Remarkable for 
liquation. 

Very slightly 
malleable. 

White bell- 

[metal. 

Brittle; uni- 
form. 



224 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Properties of the Alloys of 







Composition 


Composition 










Atomic 


of original 
mixture. 


by 

analysis. 


Specific 


Color. 


Fracture* 


<X> 


formula. 










gravity. 






s 
1 


Cu. 


Su. 


Cu. 


Sn. 




135 


Sn 5 Cu 3 


24.3S 


75.62 


23.35 


76.29 


7.835 


Grayish- 
white 


Finely 

crystalline 


136 





22.50 


77 50 


— 





7.774 


" 


" 


137 


— 


21 .74 


7S.26 


21.38 


77.63 


7.53 


Whitish 





138 


SnoOu 


2121 


78.79 








7.738 





, 


139 


Su.TCu 


21 21 


7S.79 


— 


— 


7.74 








140 


Si.jCu 


21.18 


7S.S2 


20.25 


79.63 


7.770 


Grayish- 
white 


Crystal 


141 


Sn 2 Cu 


21.15 


7S.S5 


— 


— 


7.387 


« 


Coarse, 

crystal 


142 


Su 5 Cu 2 


17.68 


82.32 





— 


7.652 


— — 


— — 


143 




17.50 


S2.50 


— 


— 


7.690 


Grayish- 

white 


Crystal 


144 





16 40 


83.60 





— 


— 








145 


Sn 3 Cu 


15.21 


81-79 





— 


7.53 








146 


Sn 3 Cu 


15.21 


S4.79 


— 


— 


7.606 • 





, 


147 


Su 3 Cu 


15.19 


S4.S1 


15.0S 


81.62 


7.657 


Grayish- 

white 


Crystal 


14S 


Sn 3 Cu 


15.17 


S4.S3 


— 


— 


7.417 


c< 


Coarsely 
crystalline 


149 


— 


12.50 


87.50 


— 





7.543 


" 


Crystal 


150 


Sn 4 Cn 


11.86 


SS14 








7.558 





" 


151 


Sn 4 Cu 


11.S4 


88.16 


11.49 


88.47 


7.552 


Grayish- 
white 


Crystal 


152 


Sn 4 Ca 


11.84 


SS.16 


— 


— 


7.50 








153 


Sn 4 Cu 


11 .82 


SS.18 


— 


— 


7.472 


Grayish- 
white 


Coarsely 
crystalline 


154 


Sn=Cu 


9.73 


90.27 


— 





7 517 








155 SihCu 


9.73 


90.27 


— 


— 


7.52 








156 


Su 5 Cu 


9 70 


90.30 


8.57 


91.39 


7.4S7 


Grayish- 
white 


Granular 


157 


Sn 5 Ca 


9.6S 


90.32 





— 


7.4-12 


" 


Earthy 


158 


— 


9.09 


90.91 


— 


— 


7.472 


. 





159 


— 


7.50 


92.50 


— 


— 


7.417 


Grayish- 
white 


Granular 


160 


— 


6.43 


93.57 


— 


— 


— 








161 


Sn 12 Ca 


4.25 


95.71 


3.72 


96 31 


7.360 


Grayish- 

white 


Granular 


162 


— 


2.50 


97.50 


— 


— 


7.342 


" 


Fibrous 


163 


Sn 4s Cu 


1.11 


98.89 


0.74 


99 02 


7.305 


" 


" 


164 


Sn 90 Cu 


0.56 


99.44 


0.32 


99.46 


7.299 


" 


<( 


16.-. 


Su 





ioo oo 


— 





7.293 


(i 


ti 


166 


— 





100 00 


— 


— 


7.291 


White 


" 


167 








100 oo 


— 





7.297 








16 S 


— 





100.00 


— 


— 


7.204 








169 


— 





loo.oo 


— 


— 


7.305 








170 








10L00 





— 


— 








171 


— 





100.00 


— 


— 


— 









PROPERTIES OF COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



225 



Co}iper and Tin. — Concluded. 









>» 


— 
















,-i. 


.ti 


0/ 


=* CT 


c 




>» . 






c = 


a si 
^3 


•S3 






i ® 


© 


Is II 




s 


HI 


^5 




111 

3S CS OS 


7 2 




If! 

5£« 


33 ® «. 

•5 ~ JS 


© 


& 


H 


o 


w 


3 


O 


- 


» 


u 


< 


135 


6,775 


— 


0.03 












T. 


136 


5,000 




0.12 












T. 


137 


















W. 


13S 











135.42 








43.1 





C. J. 


139 


















Ri. 


140 


4,337 


— 


0.06 


— 


— 




— 


— 


T. 


141 


8,736 





- 


12 


8 


5 


- 


- 


Ml. 


142 


















Cr. 


143 


2,816 


— 


0.20 












T. 


144 
















12.76 


Ma. 


145 


















Ki. 


146 


— 


— 


— 


104.17 


— 


— 


42.3 


— 


C.J. 


147 


6,520 


— 


0.92 












T. 


148 


6,944 





- 


13 


15 


4 


- 


- 


. Ml. 


149 


3,798 





4.71 












T. 


150 


— 


— 


— 


95.81 


— 


— 


40.6 


— 


C.J. 


151 


6,3S0 


— 


7.0S 












T. 


152 


















Ri. 


153 


6,944 


8 


— 


14 


4 


3 


— 




Ml. 


154 











S3. 33 








39.6 


- — 


C. J. 


155 


















Ri. 


156 


6,450 


— 


23.47 












T. 


157 


3,360 


6 




15 


3 


2 






Ml. 


15S 


















W. 


159 


6,096 


— 


40.06 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S.B. 


160 
















12.03 


Ma. 


161 


4.7S0 


— 


56.77 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S.B. 


162 


5,600 





121.9 





_ 











U.S.B 


163 


3.650 


— 


133.9 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S.B. 


164 


4.475 


— 


2«8.S 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S. B. 


165 


3,500 


— 


219.S 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


U.S. B. 


166 


1 6.040 


7 


— 


16 


1 


1 


— 


— 


Ml. 


167 


* 2,122 
















Wa. 


168 
















1 1 45 


Ma. 


169 


















Cr. 


170 





— 





27 





— 


42.2 





C.J. 


171 


— 


— 










15.2 


17.0 


We. 



Remarks. 



Yellow, green- 
ish-white, shin- 
Ling. 



Slightly malle- 
able. 



226 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 



Bo. — Bolley. Essais et Recherches Chimiques, Paris, 1SG9, pp. 345, 

348. 
O.— Crookewit. Erdmann's Journal, 1848, Vol. 45, pp. 87 to 93. 
C. J. — Calvert and Johnson. Specific Gravities, Phil. Mag., 1859, 

Vol. 18, pp. 354 to 359 ; Hardness, Phil. Mag., 1859, Vol. 17, 

pp. 114 to 121; Heat Conductivity, Phil. Trans., 1858, pp. 349 

to 368. 
De. — S. B. Dean. Ordnance Notes, No. XL., Washington, 1875. 
La. — Lafond. Dingier' 's Jour., 1855, Vol. 135, p. 269. 
Ml.— Mallet. Phil. Mag., 1842, Vol. 21, pp. 66 to 68. 
Ma.— Matthiessen. Phil. Trans., I860, p. 161 ; ibid., 1864, pp. 167 

to 200. 
Mar. — Marchaud and Scheerer. Journal flier Praktische Chemie, 

Vol. 27, p. 193 (Clark's "Constants of Nature). 1 ' 
Mas. — Muschenbroek. Ure's Dictionary, article "Alloy." 
Ri.— Itiche. Annales de Chimie, 1873, Vol. 20, pp. 351 to 419. 
U. S. B. — Report of Committee on Metallic Alloys of United States 

Board appointed to Test Iron, Steel, etc. 
T.— Thomas Tomson. Annales de Chimie, 1814, Vol. 89, pp. 46 to 58. 
W. — Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry. 
Wa. — Major Wade, United States Army. Report on Experiments on 

Metals for Cannon, Phil., 1S56. 
We.— Weidemann. Phil. Mag., I860, Vol. 19, pp. 243, 244. 

Note on the table. — In the preceding table the figures 
of order of ductility, hardness, and fusibility are taken 
from Mallet's experiments on a series of 16 alloys, the 
figure 1 representing the maximum and 16 the mini- 
mum of the property. The ductility of the brittle 
metals is represented by Mallet as 0. 

The relative ductility given in the table of the alloys 
experimented on by the U. S. Board is the proportionate 
extension of the exterior fibres of the pieces tested by 
torsion as determined by the autograph strain diagrams. 



PROPERTIES OF COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 227 

It will bo seen that the order of ductility differs widely 
from that given by Mallet. 

The figures of relative hardness, on the authority of 
Calvert and Johnson, are those obtained by them by 
means of an indenting tool. The figures are on a scale 
in which cast-iron is rated at 1000. The word "broke" 
in this column indicates the fact that the alloy opposite 
which it occurs broke under the indenting tool, showing 
that the relative hardness could not be measured, but 
was considerably greater than that of cast-iron. 

The figures of specific gravity show a fair agreement 
among the several authorities in the alloys containing 
more than 35 per cent, of tin, except those given by 
Mallet, which are in general very much lower than 
those by all the other authorities. In the alloys con- 
taining less than 35 per cent, of tin there is a wide 
variation among all the different authorities, Mallet's 
figures, however, being generally lower than the others. 
Several of the figures of specific gravity have been 
selected from Riche's results of experiments on the 
effects of annealing, tempering, and compression, which 
show that the latter especially tends to increase the 
specific gravity of all the alloys containing less than 20 
per cent, tin to about 8.95. This result is due merely 
to the closing up of the blow-holes, thus diminishing the 
porosity. The specific gravity of 8.953 was obtained by 
Major Wade by casting a small bar in a cold iron mould 
from the same metal which gave a specific gravity of 
only 8.313 when cast in the form of a small bar in a 
clay mould. The former result is exceptionally high, 
and indicates the probability that every circumstance 



228 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of the melting, pouring, casting, and cooling was favor- 
able to the exclusion of the gas which forms blow-holes 
and to the formation of a perfectly compact metal. 

The figures of tenacity given by Mallet, Muschen- 
broek, and Wade agree with those found in the experi- 
ments as closely as could be expected from the very 
variable strengths of alloys of the same composition 
which have been found by all experimenters. 

Mallet's figure for copper, 24.6 tons or 55,104 pounds, 
is certainly much too high for cast copper; the piece 
which he tested was probably rolled or perhaps drawn 
into wire. Haswell's Pocket Book gives the following 
as the tensile strength of copper; the names of the 
authorities are not given : — 

Pounds per 
square inch. 

Copper, wrought 34,000 

Copper, rolled 36,000 

Copper, cast (American) .... 24,250 

Copper, wire 61,200 

Copper, bolt 36,800 

The strength of gun-bronze, as found in the guns, is 
not given in the table, which is designed to compare 
the various authorities on the tenacities of the alloys 
only as cast under ordinary conditions, and not when 
compressed, rolled, or cast under pressure. 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 229 

XXIII. 

NICKEL ALLOYS. 

Nickel and copper. — Nickel and copper unite in a 
wide range of proportions, the color of the alloys vary- 
ing from copper-red to the bine-white of the nickel, 
according to the proportions of the respective metals. 
With a content of 0.10 per cent, of nickel the alloy is 
very ductile, of a light copper-red color, and moderate 
strength '.with 0.15 per cent, the ductility is still con- 
siderable, while the color changes to a very pale red ; a 
content of 0.25 per cent, of nickel gives a nearly white 
alloy, and 0.30 per cent, a silver-white metal. The 
beautiful white color and considerable hardness acquired 
by copper by an addition of nickel make the alloy 
especially suitable for coinage, and it is used for this 
purpose in Switzerland, Belgium, and the United States. 
Both the Belgian and United States coins now contain 
copper 75, nickel 25. 

The use of alloys consisting of copper and nickel 
alone is limited, those consisting of copper, nickel, and 
zinc being more frequently employed. C. Morfit pre- 
pares a beautiful alloy of nickel and copper by mixing 
33 parts of nickel and 34 parts of copper with some 
borax, and fusing in a graphite crucible. To the melted 
mass he adds with constant stirring 33 parts more of 
copper, and casts the resulting alloy in small sticks. 

Berthicr's alloy consists of copper 0.682 part, nickel 
0.318. It is fusible, ductile, strong, bluish- white, 
20 



230 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

slightly magnetic, and somewhat crystalline near the 
surface. 

Nickel, copjyer, and zinc alloys. — These alloys form 
the mixtures of metals known as German silver, pack- 
fong, argent neuf, etc. They may in a measure be con- 
sidered as brass, which, by an addition of nickel, has 
acquired a white color and considerable hardness. 

Generally speaking, German silver is superior to brass 
as regards hardness, strength, and power of resisting 
chemical influences, the latter property making it espe- 
cially valuable for certain purposes. In respect to its 
preparation it is, however, a very subtle mixture, and 
exceedingly small quantities of foreign metals exert a 
considerable influence upon the physical properties of 
the alloy. 

A content of arsenic is most injurious in this respect. 
Even a very small percentage of it renders the alloy so 
brittle that it can scarcely be worked, and turns it in a 
short time into a brownish color. 

The greater portion of nickel is at present obtained 
from an ore known as copper nickel or arsenical nickel 
and from certain cobalt ores. Both ores, however, 
always contain considerable quantities of arsenic, which 
it is impossible to remove entirely by the ordinary mode 
of smelting. This content of arsenic prevented for a 
long time the general introduction of nickel alloys in 
practice, and it became necessary entirely to abandon 
the method of preparing nickel by the dry method. It 
is now prepared by the wet method in order to obtain 
protoxide of nickel entirely free from arsenic. This 
protoxide is then made into small cubes with starch- 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 231 

paste and heated at a very high temperature. By this 
treatment it is reduced to metal, the pure nickel re- 
maining behind in the form of a quite dense metallic 
sponge, which is, however, not fused, but simply slagged, 
nickel belonging to the metals very difficult to fuse. It 
may here be mentioned that for making alloys, it is 
really better to have the nickel, not as a compact fused 
mass, but in the form of a sponge, the latter combining 
with greater ease with the other metals. 

Nickel ores are also reduced by fluxing with chalk 
and fluospar if arseniated, or by roasting and then re- 
ducing with charcoal and sulphur to the state 1 of sul- 
phide, and then by double decomposition with carbonate 
of soda obtaining the carbonate, which is finally reduced 
with charcoal. 

Nickel and cobalt are closely allied as regards their 
chemical properties and frequently occur together, so 
that the nickel found in commerce often contains a con- 
siderable quantity of cobalt, which passes into the alloy 
without, however, exerting an injurious influence. The 
same may be said of iron, also chemically closely allied 
to nickel, a content of it even increasing the tenacity 
and hardness of the nickel alloys and imparting to them 
a whiter color. But, on the other hand, it makes them 
more difficult to work and renders them somewhat 
brittle. The genuine packfong, the original nickel alloy 
introduced from China, contains sometimes as much as 
three per cent, of iron. European manufacturers also 
frequently add a small quantity of iron to German 
silver, if a high degree of hardness is required for cer- 
tain purposes. 



232 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Some skill is, however, required to effect an actual 
combination of the alloy with the iron. By adding the 
iron directly to the fused alloy it does not combine with 
it, and forms upon the surface of the fused mass a layer 
consisting of copper, nickel, and the added iron. An 
alloy of iron and copper dissolves, however, readily in 
the German silver, and an intimate union of all the 
metals can be easily effected by melting together equal 
portions of copper and steel and adding pieces of this 
alloy to the fused German silver. 

An addition of silver to German silver does not affect 
its properties injuriously, nor an addition of a few per 
cent, of lead, which makes the alloy more fusible, some- 
what cheaper, and improves its color. It is, however, 
remarkable that only a very small addition of lead 
renders the alloy quite brittle. 

By an addition of tin German silver acquires consid- 
erable hardness and a beautiful sound. An alloy of this 
kind containing a suitable quantity of tin could be 
used as speculum-metal and bell-metal. But the pre- 
viously given compositions for these purposes being very 
suitable and much cheaper, tin alloys containing nickel 
are not used in practice. 

As regards the properties of nickel alloys they may 
be summed up as follows : The color of the mixture is 
always white, the degree of whiteness depending on the 
quantity of the separate metals used in the respective 
composition. The most beautiful color is shown by an 
alloy of 4 parts of copper and 3 of nickel, but unfortu- 
nately this alloy is scarcely available for practical pur- 
poses, it being extremely difficult to fuse, and so hard 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 233 

that it can scarcely be worked. An alloy containing 75 
parts of copper and 25 of nickel does no longer show a 
pure white color, but one with a yellowish tinge, which 
is clearly perceptible by holding a polished piece of such 
an alloy alongside a piece of silver. Hence the better 
qualities of German silver must in all cases contain 
more than one-fourth of nickel. In using a small quan- 
tity of nickel it has been attempted to remove the yel- 
lowish color by an addition of silver; but without 
success. The Swiss coins are made of such an alloy, 
and, as is well known, show a decidedly yellowish cast. 

In most factories the articles made of German silver 
are plated with silver by the electric current and exhibit 
the color of chemically pure silver, which they retain 
for a shorter or longer time according to the thickness 
of the deposit. 

The mechanical manipulation of German silver is 
attended with some difficulties, the plates, which for 
the purpose of preparing sheet must be obtained by 
casting, being strongly crystalline and readily cracking 
under the hammer. 

Generally small plates about 7} to 12 inches long, 4f 
to 7J inches wide, and J inch thick are prepared by 
casting. These plates are slightly rolled and hammered, 
being annealed after each mechanical manipulation. By 
this treatment they gradually lose the crystalline struc- 
ture, and when this has entirely disappeared can be 
further worked with ease, and rolled and stamped into 
any desired form, most articles (spoons, forks, etc.) 
being prepared by the latter method. Like alloys of 
the precious metals German silver has the property of 

20* 



234 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

retaining its metallic color and lustre on being brought 
in contact with air and water, and it is not affected even 
by dilute acids such as are frequently found in food 
(lactic acid, acetic acid, etc.). 

Nickel alloys possessing strong electric properties are 
used in the manufacture of positive elements for thermo- 
electric piles ; they are especially adapted for the pur- 
pose on account of their high melting point. A thermo- 
electric pile, one portion of which consists of a nickel 
alloy, can be heated to a strong red heat without fear of 
the alloy melting. 

German silver or argentan. — Alloys of nickel, copper, 
and zinc are recognized in commerce under all sorts of 
names, but in order to avoid confusion we will retain the 
term German silver or argentan, which is most in use. 
Factories which produce this alloy are found in almost all 
large cities, though Germany and England are the chief 
seats of the industry. The composition of the alloys 
used by the various factories differs considerably, as may 
be seen from the following figures : — 

Copper . . . . . . 50 to 66 parts. 

Zinc 19 " 31 " 

Nickel 13 " 18 " 

For the fabrication of spoons, forks, cups, candle- 
sticks, etc., alloys consisting of copper 50 parts, nickel 
25, and zinc 25 are most suitable, as they show a beau- 
tiful white blue color which does not tarnish. 

German silver is sometimes so brittle that a spoon 
allowed to fall upon the floor will break ; this fragility 
is due, of course, to an incorrect composition. It is im- 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 



235 



possible to give a definite composition for German silver, 
inasmuch as it varies according to the manipulation the 
article manufactured from the alloy is to undergo. The 
following table of analyses of different kinds of German 
silver shows how the qualities of the alloys change with 
the percentage of metals contained in them. Immaterial 
admixtures of foreign metals have been omitted in the 
compilation, only those belonging to the composition of 
the alloy being given : — 





Parts. 


, 


German silver. 


Copper. 


Zinc. 


Nickel. 


Quality. 


English .... 
it 

a 

German .... 
<< 


8 
8 

8 

52 
59 
63 


3.5 
3.5 

6.5 

26 
30 
31 


4 

6 

3 

22 

11 

6 


finest quality, 
very beautiful, but 

very refractory, 
ordinary, readily 

fusible, 
prime quality, 
second " 
third " 



The following analyses give interesting particulars 
concerning various kinds of alloys for German silver: — 



236 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 





Parts. 


German silver. 














Copper. 


Zinc. 


Nickel. 


Lead. 


Iron. 


f 


50 


31.3 


18.7 






French for sheet . < 


50 


30 


20 


— 


— 


I 


58.3 


25 


16.7 


— 


— 


f 


50 


25 


25 








"Vienna 1 


55.6 


22 


22 


— 


— 


1 


60 


20 


20 


— 


— 


Berlin j 


54 
55.5 


28 
29.1 


18 
17.5 





— 


f 


63.34 


17.01 


19.13 








i 
English .... -| 


62.40 
62.63 


22.15 
26.05 


15.05 
10.85 


— 


— 


I 


57.40 


25 


13 


— 


3.00 


f 


26.3 


36.8 


36.8 








; 1 

Chinese ....-! 


43.8 
45.7 


40.6 
36.9 


15.6 
17.0 


— 


— 


L 


40.4 


25.4 


31.6 


— 


2.60 


c 


- 48.5 


24.3 


24.3 


2.9 







54.5 


21.8 


21.8 


1.9 


— 


For casting . . ".. ! - 


58.3 


19.4 


19.4 


2.9 






57.8 


27.1 


14.3 


0.8 


"~~ 




57.0 


20.0 


20.0 


3.0 




Sheffield- 












Common (yellow) . 


59.30 


25.90 


14.80 




— 


Silver-white . 


55.20 


24.10 


20.70 


— 


— 


Electrum (bluish) . 


51.60 


22.60 


25.80 


— 


— 


Hard (can be worked 












cold) .... 


45.70 


20.00 


31.30 


— 


— 


Fricke's — 












Bluish-yellow (hard) 


55.50 


39.00 


5.50 


— 


— 


Pale yellow (ductile) 


62.50 


31.20 


6.30 


■ — 


— 


Silvery (hard) . . 


50.00 


18.80 


31.20 


— 


— 


" (harder) 


59.00 


30.00 


10.00 


— 


— 


Common formula . . 


55.00 


25.00 


20.00 


— 


— 



Many varieties of German silver contain different 
quantities of iron, manganese, tin, or very frequently 



MANUFACTURE OF GERMAN SILVER. 237 

lead to change the qualities of the alloy or to cheapen 
it. All these additions, however, exert rather an inju- 
rious than beneficial influence, and especially lessen the 
power of resistance against the action of dilute acids, 
which is one of the most valuable properties of this 
alloy. 

An addition of lead makes German silver more fusi- 
ble; one of tin acts in a certain sense as in bronze, 
making the alloy denser and more sonorous, and causing 
it to take a better polish. An addition of iron or man- 
ganese increases the white color of the alloy, but it be- 
comes at the same time more refractory and inclines to- 
wards brittleness. 



XXIV. 



MANUFACTURE OF GERMAN SILVER ON A LARGE 
SCALE. 

In the manufacture of German silver, the purity of 
the metals used is of greater importance than in the 
preparation of any of the alloys previously described. 
The nickel found at present in commerce is generally 
sufficiently pure to be used without further preparation, 
the chief contamination being cobalt, which, as pre- 
viously mentioned, exerts little influence upon the prop- 
erties of the alloy. Copper is frequently contaminated 
with iron, lead, arsenic, and antimony, and, in such case, 
is only fit for the preparation of German silver of 
second or third quality. Zinc also contains certain con- 
taminations injurious to the qualities of the alloy. 



238 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Iii consideration of the great influence the contamina- 
tions of the metals exerts upon the properties of German 
silver, great care must be exercised in buying the metals, 
as it is advisable to subject them to a chemical analysis. 
But, notwithstanding that such an analysis is inexpen- 
sive at the present time, many manufacturers still prefer 
the empirical method of preparing small samples of the 
alloy from the metals to be used, and, by subjecting 
them to certain tests, judge as to the availability of the 
respective metals. The conclusions drawn from such 
tests are, however, frequently unreliable. 

The test is generally executed by alloying the metals 
in the proportions in which they are to be used and cast- 
ing the test-alloy into thin and flat sticks. These sticks 
are then fastened in a vise, and the projecting end is 
quickly bent by pounding with a hammer, the place 
where the stick is held by the vise being carefully ob- 
served, as in nearly all cases it breaks there first. If a 
stick can be bent backward and forward several times 
without breaking, it is a proof of the good quality of 
the metals, and the alloy composed of them can be sub- 
jected to every mechanical manipulation. The presence 
of foreign metals is indicated by the breaking of the 
stick if bent but once, and if the breaking takes place 
at anv other than a ri^ht au^le the metals are not 
available for the finer qualities of German silver. 

Manufacturers are generally of the opinion that in 
this case the nickel is of pure quality, but this opinion 
is correct only when based upon the assumption that 
pure copper and zinc have been used in the preparation 
of the test-alloy. 



MANUFACTURE OF GERMAN SILVER. 239 

The manufacture of German silver is generally car- 
ried on according to two methods, which, from the coun- 
tries where they have been perfected, are termed the 
German and the English process. Both yield German 
silver of excellent quality, and, as will be seen from the 
descriptions of the two methods, differ chiefly in the 
manner in which the various operations in melting down 
the alloys are executed. 

German process. — The alloy is prepared in the follow- 
ing manner : The zinc and nickel to be used for a Cer- 
es 

tain quantity of copper are divided into three equal 
portions. Now place upon the bottom of a graphite 
crucible, capable of holding at the utmost 22 pounds of 
the alloy, a layer of copper, upon this a layer of zinc 
and nickel, upon this again a layer of copper, and con- 
tinue in this manner until all the copper is in the crucible, 
retaining, however, one-third each of the nickel and zinc. 

The crucible is now covered with a layer of charcoal 
powder to prevent volatilization and oxidation of zinc, 
and the contents melted down as quickly as possible in 
a wind-furnace connected with a high chimney, quite a 
high temperature being required for the fusion of the 
alloy. 

When the contents of the crucible are supposed to be 
liquefied, they are examined by clipping in an iron rod, 
and, if the whole is found to be thoroughly melted, an 
intimate mixture of the metals is effected by vigorous 
stirring with the rod. 

The zinc and nickel retained are now added in por- 
tions to the melted contents of the crucible, the mass 
being vigorously stirred after each addition, and a sharp 



240 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

fire kept up to prevent the alloy from cooling off too 
much by the newly introduced metals. After the intro- 
duction of the last portion, an additional piece of zinc 
is generally thrown into the crucible to compensate for 
the loss of zinc by volatilization, and besides experience 
has shown that a small excess of zinc renders the alloy 
more thinly fluid, which materially facilitates the work 
in the subsequent casting. If the alloy is to be rolled 
out into thin sheets, it is recommended to keep the fin- 
ished alloy liquid for some time longer before proceeding 
to casting. In doing this, however, it is necessary con- 
stantly to keep the surface of the melted metal covered 
with charcoal to prevent volatilization of zinc. 

The casting of the alloy is effected in various ways. 
It is either at once cast into plates, which are subse- 
quently rolled out into sheets, or into very thin sticks, 
which after cooling are remelted and finally cast into 
plates. On account of the greater consumption of fuel 
and labor, the last method is somewhat more expensive 
than direct casting, but it has the advantage of the alloy 
becoming more homogeneous by remelting, and besides 
it can be worked with greater ease. Only with the use 
of very pure metals is it advisable to cast the alloy at 
once into plates. 

Considerable skill is required for casting the alloy, it 
being necessary to run it into the moulds at as high a 
temperature as possible and in an uninterrupted stream. 
An interruption of the stream can be at once detected 
by the fact that the plate is not uniform. 

The moulds used in casting plates consist of two iron 
plates, one smooth and the other with a ledge corre- 



MANUFACTURE OF GERMAN SILVER. 241 

sponding to the thickness of the plate to be cast, which 
varies from 0.50 to 0.59 inch. On account of the great 
contraction of the alloy in solidifying, the distance be- 
tween the two plates must be somewhat greater. In 
order to obtain castings of greater homogeneousness, it 
is recommended to run the melted metals from below 
into the moulds. This is effected by providing the 
lower plate with a lip or mouth-piece, in which is placed 
a clay-funnel connected with a pipe rising somewhat 
above the mould. After the plates are tightly screwed 
together, the mould is highly heated and the casting 
proceeded with. The metal is heated as intensely as 
possible, and after being freed from all contaminations 
iloating on the surface, is allowed to run in a steady, 
thin stream into the mould. When the metal appears 
on the upper end of the mould and the funnel remains 
filled, the casting is finished. After allowing the filled 
mould to stand quietly for about half an hour the solid- 
ified plate is removed. To prevent the alloy from ad- 
hering to the sides of the mould, these are previously to 
casting coated with a layer of fine lamp-black. The 
principal difficulty in casting plates of German silver is 
to obtain them perfectly homogeneous and free from 
blow-holes, which is best effected by bringing the melted 
metal as hot as possible into the mould. On account of 
the difficulty of executing the casting so quickly that 
the contents of the crucible do not cool off, it is recom- 
mended to fill only one mould at a time, and replace the 
crucible in the furnace in order to keep the contents at 
the highest temperature possible. 

The plates of German silver thus obtained have to be 
21 



242 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

carefully examined as to whether they are perfectly ho- 
mogeneous. Imperfect plates must be thrown out and 
remelted. The perfect plates are rolled out into sheets 
from which the articles to be manufactured are punched 
out and then further worked. 

English process. — The English method of preparing 
the alloy differs somewhat from the German, especially 
in the manner in which the metals are melted together, 
no portion of the zinc or nickel being retained, but the 
entire quantity of metal is melted at one time. Good 
graphite crucibles are used, which are placed in a fur- 
nace capable of producing a high temperature. The 
metals are used in the form of small pieces. The 
charge of each crucible generally consists of 8J pounds 
of tin, J pound of zinc, and, according to the quality of 
the alloy to be produced, 2 to 3 pounds of nickel. The 
metals are intimately mixed and quickly introduced into 
the red-hot crucibles. Their surface is immediately 
covered with a thick layer of coal-dust and the mixture 
fused as quickly as possible. After ascertaining by stir- 
ring with an iron rod that the mass is liquefied, a pre- 
viously prepared alloy of 1 part by weight of zinc and J 
part of copper is added, the quantity for the above charge 
varying between If and 2 pounds. When this alloy is 
melted and the entire contents of the crucible forms a 
homogeneous whole, 2 pounds of zinc are finally added. 
The mass being kept constantly covered with coal-dust 
is now heated as strongly as possible, and when thinly 
fluid a sample is taken to test its qualities. 

The alloy always contains a certain amount of oxide, 
and, if a large quantity of it is present, the casting will 



MANUFACTURE OF GERMAN SILVER. 243 

be badly blown. To ascertain how the alloy will act 
in casting, a test casting is made, and, if the fracture 
of this shows blow-holes, the oxides will have to be 
reduced. This is effected by throwing pitch into a 
stoneware pipe pushed through the contents of the 
crucible to the bottom. The products of dry distilla- 
tion evolved from the pitch effect a reduction of the 
oxides, which is accelerated by stirring coal dust into 
the melted metal. When the reduction of oxides is 
supposed to be finished, a strong heat is given, and, after 
the coal mechanically mixed with the alloy has collected 
upon the surface, the purified metal^ is cast in manner 
similar to that described under the German process. 
Instead of coating the moulds with lamp-black alone, 
many manufacturers use a mixture of lamp-black and 
oil of turpentine. Moulds thus treated must, however, 
be sharply dried to volatilize the oil of turpentine, as 
otherwise the vapors evolved from the oil of turpentine 
in casting might readily cause the formation of blow- 
holes. 

The casting of the plates finishes the chemical portion 
of the process, and the perfect plates are mechanically 
worked in the same manner as indicated under the 
German process. Articles of German silver have to be 
soldered with a solder whose color approaches as nearly 
as possible that of the alloy. An excellent composition 
for this purpose is prepared by melting 5 to 6 parts of 
German silver together with 4 parts of zinc. It is, 
however, better directly to prepare the alloy which is to 
serve as solder by melting together copper 35 parts, 
zinc 57, and nickel 8. 



244 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The alloy is prepared in the same manner as German 
silver, and after being cast in thin plates pulverized 
while hot. If the alloy is too tough and can only be 
pulverized with difficulty it contains too little zinc, 
while too great brittleness indicates too small a quantity 
of nickeL In both cases the alloy must be improved 
by remelting and adding the necessary quantity of the 
respective metals. 

The alloys of German silver are principally used for 
the manufacture of tableware, as cups, dishes, forks, 
spoons, etc., but on account of their beautiful color and 
solidity, they are also used for articles of art, and are 
more and more substituted for genuine silver. For fine 
mechanical work German silver surpasses all other 
alloys, it having, besides considerable strength and 
power of resistance, the valuable property of not 
changing its appearance in contact with dry air and 
of expanding but little on heating. 

Alfenide, Argiroide, and allied alloys. — The alloys 
brought into commerce under these and many other 
names consist in most cases of a mixture of metals 
closely resembling German silver, but they are always 
plated with pure silver by the galvanic current, the 
thickness of the plating depending on the price of the 
respective articles. In many cases the composition used 
in the manufacture of these articles is a very ordinary 
quality of German silver, which by itself would present 
a mean appearance, but is hid from the buyer by the 
silver plating. 

In modern times alloys have been frequently recom- 
mended which differ from the actual nickel alloys as 



MANUFACTURE OF GERMAN SILVER. 245 

represented by German silver in containing tin and 
aluminium, which makes them more fusible and more 
easily worked than German silver. Thus far these 
alloys have not been generally introduced in practice, 
and besides they are dearer than German silver. 

We give in the following several alloys recommended 
as substitutes for German silver. 

Alfenide. — According to Rochet, this alloy is composed 
of 59.1 parts of copper, 30.2 of zinc, 9.7 of nickel, and 
1.0 of iron. According to this, it is actually nothing 
but an ordinary quality of German silver. It is said 
to be well adapted for electro-silver plating spoons, 
forks, and other articles with a smooth surface, but it 
does not succeed so well for decorated pieces. 

Toucasfs alloy is composed of copper 5 parts, nickel 4, 
antimony, tin, lead, zinc, and iron, of each 1. The 
metals are melted together in a crucible. This alloy 
has the advantage of being complex, if it does not pos- 
sess other qualities than similar compounds. According 
to the inventor, it has nearly the color of silver, may be 
worked like it, and is laminated by the ordinary processes. 
It is resisting, malleable, susceptible of a fine polish, 
with a lustre of platinum, and can be perfectly silvered. 
For objects which are to be spun, hammered, or chased 
the above alloy is very convenient, but for cast and 
adjusted pieces it is preferable to increase the propor- 
tion of zinc in order to increase the fluidity of the metal. 
This compound is employed for ornaments, jewelry, etc. 

According to Trabuk, of Nimes, a beautiful white 
alloy, which resists the action of vegetable acids, and 
may serve as a substitute for German silver, is obtained 

21* 



246 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

by melting together 875 parts of tin, 55 of nickel, 50 
of antimony, and 20 of bismuth. Into a crucible of 
suitable size introduce first J of the tin and all the 
nickel, antimony, and bismuth, and after covering these 
metals with the second J of tin, cover the whole with a 
layer of charcoal powder to prevent oxidation. The lid 
is then placed upon the crucible and the latter heated to 
a bright red heat. After ascertaining by stirring with 
a red hot iron rod that all the nickel is fused, the last 
third of tin is added, without, however, removing the 
layer of charcoal ; the mass is then stirred until it is 
perfectly homogeneous, and cast into ingots. 



XXV. 



ALLOYS OF TTN, WITH LITTLE COPPER AND 
ADDITIONS OF ANTIMONY, ETC. 

Tin by itself is a very soft metal, and in a pure state 
finds but little application in the industries, but in the 
form of alloys its use is constantly increasing. These 
alloys show different properties according to the metals 
with which the tin is combined, and form one of the 
most important and valuable groups, as they include 
metal for bearings, type-metal, britannia metal, etc. 

The tin alloys most frequently used contain copper, 
zinc, or antimony ; others less frequently employed con- 
tain iron or lead, and some for special purposes bismuth. 

The effect produced by the different metals upon the 
properties of the tin varies very much, but, generally 



etc. 247 

speaking, it may be said, that the melting point is raised, 
while the great ductility of the tin is decreased, but its 
hardness and resisting power are very much increased. 

An addition of copper makes the tin considerably 
harder, the properties of the alloys thus formed ap- 
proaching those of genuine bronze. Alloys containing, 
besides tin and copper, certain quantities of zinc, possess 
the same constituents as brass, and it depends on the 
quantity of the metals whether the properties of the 
alloy actually approach those of brass, or whether they 
have a more bronze-like character. 

Antimony possessing the special property of Jiarden- 
ing soft metals, the tin and antimony alloys always 
show a certain degree of hardness, but unfortunately 
become also so brittle that they can only be used for 
castings, as stretching them under the hammer or by 
rolling is very difficult and frequently impossible. 

Alloys of tin and lead were formerly much used in 
the manufacture of pots, dishes, plates, etc., but at the 
present time their application is limited. Alloys of tin 
with bismuth and other metals are distinguished by a 
very low melting point, frequently below that of boiling 
water ; such alloys are only used for special purposes. 

The most important alloys of tin are those known as 
white metal and britannia metal. In a certain sense a 
few other alloys might be classed among the tin alloys, 
but as the other metals are present in a preponderating 
quantity, it seems more suitable to discuss them under 
the name of the metal present in largest quantity, or 
which at least imparts to the alloy its characteristic 
properties. 



248 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

White metals. — The so-called white metals contain 
varying quantities of tin, copper, and antimony. Some- 
times the latter is replaced by zinc, the composition in 
this case approaching more or less that of statuary 
bronze. A simultaneous use of zinc and antimony 
occurs but seldom ; there are further some alloys which 
contain iron or lead besides the mentioned metals. A 
combination of many metals to one and the same alloy 
does not seem especially practical, since our knowledge 
of the alloys has scarcely reached such a point as to 
enable us to determine with absolute certainty how three 
metals in various proportions of mixture behave towards 
each other, and we are still less able to state with accu- 
racy the behavior of alloys in the preparation of which 
four, five, or even six metals are used. Besides practi- 
cal experience has shown such alloys to be frequently 
of no value, and are simply recommended by some 
persons in order to make a market for a new product. 

The so-called white metals serve almost exclusively 
for bearings, some compositions used for the same pur- 
pose having been already given on page 142 et seq. 
In mechanics a very exact line is drawn between the 
various kinds of bearings, and they can be chiefly 
divided into tw r o large groups : red-brass bearings and 
white-metal bearings. The red-brass bearings are dis- 
tinguished by great hardness and power of resistance, 
and are principally used for bearings of heavily loaded 
and rapidly revolving axles. For bearings of axles of 
large, heavy fly-wheels revolving at great speed bear- 
ings of red brass are also preferable to white metal, 
though they are more expensive. 



ALLOYS OF TIN, ETC. 249 

White metals are cheaper than red-brass alloys and 
have a lower melting point, so that a wom-oj.it bearing 
can be readily remelted and replaced by a new one, 
while with red brass these operations are connected with 
much more trouble and expense. White-metal bear- 
ings possess still another property which makes them 
almost indispensable for certain purposes. If, for in- 
stance, the shaft resting in the bearing does not run per- 
fectly quietly, the consequence of the use of a red-brass 
bearing will be that either the axle or the bearing, ac- 
cording to whether the one is harder than the other, is 
subjected to great wear, and this will in a short time 
increase to such an extent that the axle in revolving 
will swerve considerably. By using, however, for these 
purposes white-metal bearings of a sufficient degree of 
softness, the harder axle by pressing into the softer bear- 
ing runs more quietly for a longer time than if the latter 
consists of red-brass. The bearing, of course, wears out 
as quickly, but this is of little importance since the ex- 
pense of replacing it is comparatively small. 

White-metal bearings contain a preponderating quan- 
tity of tin ; the degree of hardness of such alloys depends 
chiefly on the content of copper, those containing cer- 
tain quantities of it being, as a rule, the strongest and 
most capable of resistance. The tin can, however, be 
also considerably hardened by the use of antimony, 
and such bearings are frequently used at the present 
time, they being much cheaper than those containing 
copper, though they are not so strong and generally 
quite brittle, so that they frequently break. 

In the annexed table will be found the compositions 



250 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of the more frequently used compounds for bearings. 
From the many receipts given those have been selected 
which differ in regard to hardness and wear. As will 
be seen, iron is only used in rare cases, and the composi- 
tions containing lead find but little application, exper- 
ience having shown that the strength of the alloy is con- 
siderably decreased by an addition of lead. 

In modern times bearings of soft metal are frequently 
replaced by such as consist of a metal whose hardness is 
almost equal to that of which the axle is made, phos- 
phor-bronze being often used for this purpose, as it can 
be readily obtained so hard as to equal in that respect an 
axle of wrought or cast-steel. The metal is then used 
in a very thin layer, and serves, so to say, to fill out the 
small interspaces formed by wear on the axle and bear- 
ing, the latter consisting simply of an alloy of tin and 
lead. Such bearings, though very durable, are rather 
expensive, and can only be used for large machines. 
For small machines bearings of white metal are gene- 
rally preferred, and, if the axles are not too heavily 
loaded, do excellent service. 



ALLOYS OF TIN, ETC. 

White metals for bearings. 



251 





Parts. 




Tin. 


Anti- 
mony. 


Zinc. 


Iron. 


Lead. 


Copper. 


German for light loads 


85 


10 


_ 


_ 


_ 


5 


a it 


82 


11 


— 


— . 


— 


7 


<< c< 


80 


12 


— 


— 


' — 


8 


n tt 


76 


17 


— 


— 


— 


7 


a ii 


3 


1 


5 


— 


3 


1 


" heavy loads 


90 


8 


— 


— 


— 


2 


a a 


86.81 


7.62 


— 


— 


— 


5.57 


English for heavy loads 


17.47 


— 


76.14 


— 


— 


5.62 


" medium loads 


76.7 


15.5 


— 


— 


— 


7.8 


a u 


72.0 


26.0 


— 


— 


2_ 


2.0 


For mills 


15 


— 


40 


— 


42 


3 


" ... 


_ 


1 


5 


— 


5 





(< 


— 


1 


10 


— 


2 


— 


For heavy axles 


72.7 


18.2 


— 


— 


— 


9.1 


(< << 


38 


6 


47 


— 


4 


1 


For rapidly revolving axles 


17 


77 


— 


— 


— 


6 


Bearings of great hardness 


5 


— 


— 


70 


— 


2.5 


(( U (< 


12 


82 


2 


— 


— 


4 


'■' (cheap) . 


2 


2 


88 


— 


— 


8 


a a 


1.5 


1.5 


90 


— 


— 


7 


For railroads — 














Prussia . 


91 


6 


— 


— 


— 


3 


"... 


85 


10 


— 


— 


— 


5 


<< 


80 


12 


— 


— 


— 


8 


Prussian and Hanoverian 














railroads approved under 














the heaviest pressure 


• 86.81 


7.62 


— 


— 


— 


5.57 


Bavaria, durable cold 














. running 


90 


8 


— 


— 


— 


2 


Austria government rail- 














road .... 


90 


7 


— 


— . 


— 


3 


Distributing slide valves 


83.2 


11.2 


— 


— 


— 


5.6 


Railroad cars and larger 














machines . 


— 


16 


— 


— 


84 


— 


Railroad cars, harder f 
and stronger \ 


20 


20 ■ 


— 


— 


60 


— 


— 


12 


— 


8 


80 


— 



Babbitt's anti-attrition metal is made by melting sepa- 
rately 4 parts of copper, 12 of Banea tin, 8 of regulus 



252 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of antimony, and adding 12 parts of tin after fusion. 
The antimony is added to the first portion of tin, and 
the copper is introduced after taking the melting pot 
away from the fire and before pouring into the mould. 
The charge is kept from oxidation by a surface coating 
of powdered charcoal. The "lining metal" consists of 
this "hardening" fused with twice its weight of tin, 
thus making 3.7 parts copper, 7.4 parts antimony, and 
88.9 tin. The bearing to be lined is cast with a shallow 
recess to receive the Babbitt metal. The portion to be 
tinned is washed with alcohol and powdered with sal 
ammoniac, and those surfaces which are not to receive 
the lining metal are to be covered with a clay wash. It 
is then warmed sufficiently to volatilize a part of the sal 
ammoniac and tinned. The lining is next cast in be- 
tween a former, which takes the place of the journal, 
and the bearing. 

Founders often prefer to melt the copper first in a 
plumbago crucible, then to dry the zinc carefully, and 
immerse the whole in the barely fluid copper. 

Kingston's metal, formerly much used for bearings, is 
made by melting 9 parts of copper with 24 of tin, re- 
melting, and adding 108 parts of tin, and finally 9 of 
mercury. 

Fenton's alloy for axle-boxes for locomotives and wagons 
consists of zinc 80 parts, copper 5 J, tin 14 J. This alloy 
may be recommended as regards cheapness and light- 
ness. Experiments have shown that boxes of this alloy 
require but half as much oil for lubricating as others. 
The components can be melted in an ordinary iron pot, 
and the alloy is less difficult to work than brass. 



ALLOYS OF TIN, ETC. 253 

Dewrance's patent bearing for locomotives consists of 
copper 4 parts, tin 6, antimony 8. A locomotive of the 
Liverpool-Manchester railroad ran over 4500 miles 
without the bearing requiring repair. 

Alloy for anti-friction brasses. — Zinc 80 parts, tin 14, 
copper 5, nickel 1. 

Alloy for metal stopcocks which deposits no verdigris. — 
Zinc 72 parts, tin 21, copper 7. 

English white metal.- — Tin 53 parts, lead 33, copper 
2.4, zinc 1, antimony 10.6. The specific gravity of this 
alloy is 7.22 and it melts at 290° F. 

A composition of white metal for machines recom- 
mended by Jacoby consists of copper 5 parts, tin 85, 
and antimony 10. 

Hoyle's patent alloy for pivot bearings consists of tin 
24 parts, lead 22, and antimony 6. It is claimed to 
stand friction without heating longer than any other 
composition. 

In the factory of H. Eoose, of Breslau, the following 
alloys are used for white metal bearings : — 

Parts. 





r 


II. 


III. 


IV 


Tin 


. 18 


18 


— 


— 


Lead 


. 3 


— 


8 


8 


Copper 


. 1 


1 


1 


— 


Antimony 


. — 


3 


1 


1 



22 



254 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

XXVI. 

ALLOYS OF COPPER WITH OTHER METALS. 

Cupro-mcmganese. — The alloys of copper with man- 
ganese have a beautiful, silvery color, considerable duc- 
tility, great hardness and tenacity, and are more fusible 
than ordinary bronze. They are distinguished by the 
special property of filling the moulds very exactly and 
without the formation of blow-holes. These alloys are 
very suitable for many purposes for which bronze is 
used and are not more expensive, but the preparation of 
large quantities of them is rendered difficult by the fact 
that up to the present time manganese is not prepared 
on a large scale, so that it becomes necessary for the 
preparation of alloys first to reduce that metal from its 
combinations. Moreover, manganese oxidizing more 
readily than other metals, it is difficult to obtain entirely 
homogeneous alloys. 

This evil has more recently been partially overcome, 
as a very pure combination of manganese, which is 
readily reduced to metal, can be prepared with great 
ease and at a low price. It is well known that chlorine 
used in bleacheries, paper-mills, etc., is prepared with 
the assistance of pyrolusite (black ore of manganese). 
The manganiferous liquid resulting as a by-product is 
of little value, but pure oxide of manganese can be 
readily gained from it, which can be used in the prepa- 
ration of cupro-manganese. It would be most conve- 
nient to use pyrolusite, which is the most frequently 
occurring ore of manganese, for the preparation of 



ALLOYS OF COPPER, ETC. 255 

cupro-manganese, but as it always contains considerable 
quantities of foreign metals, Avhich are reduced together 
with the manganese and enter with it into the alloys, it 
is evident that it would be very difficult to prepare 
cupro-manganese answering certain demands. 

For preparing the alloy the copper is used in the 
form of fine grains, obtained by pouring melted copper 
into cold water. These copper grains are mixed with 
charcoal and the dry oxide of manganese, and the mix- 
ture is introduced into a crucible capable of holding 
about 66 pounds. The charge is kept from, oxidation 
by a thick surface coating of powdered charcoal. The 
crucible is placed in a wind-furnace and exposed to a 
strong white heat, at which the oxide of manganese is 
completely reduced to manganese, which at once com- 
bines to an alloy with the copper. To prevent the 
access of air to the fusing mass as much as possible, it is 
advisable to cover the crucible with a lid provided in 
the centre with an aperture for the escape of the car- 
bonic oxide formed during the reduction. 

When the reduction is supposed to be complete and 
the metals fused, the lid is removed and the contents of 
the crucible stirred with an iron rod to make the alloy 
as homogeneous as possible. It is then poured out and 
rapidly solidifies to a mass resembling in appearance 
good German silver. As by repeated remelting of the 
cupro-manganese a considerable quantity of the manga- 
nese is reconverted into oxide, it is recommended to cast 
articles to be prepared from the alloy directly from the 
crucible in which the reduction has been effected. This 
is the more important as the crucible is strongly at- 
tacked by the cupro-manganese and will stand but a few 



256 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



operations. The most suitable varieties of cupro-man- 
ganese are those with a content of manganese varying 
between 10 and 30 per cent. They have a beautiful 
white color, are hard, tougher than copper, and can be 
worked under the hammer as well as by rolls. 

Pure cupro-manganese may in many cases be used as 
a substitute for bronze, especially where great hardness 
is not especially demanded. It may, however, also be 
used as an initial point of many alloys containing be- 
sides cupro-manganese tin or zinc, which are cheaper 
than the pure alloy. They must always be prepared by 
first melting the respective metals under a surface coat- 
ing of powdered charcoal, heating the fused metal as 
strongly as possible and introducing the cupro-manga- 
nese in small pieces. 

Of the alloys prepared with the assistance of cupro- 
manganese that containing zinc may become of import- 
ance in the industry, as its properties nearly resemble 
those of German silver, and like it is capable of resist- 
ing to a considerable extent the influence of chemical 
agents. Alloys consisting of copper, manganese, and tin 
resemble in their character metals for bearings and can 
be advantageously used for that purpose. 

Alloys of cupro-manganese especially valuable for 
technical purposes have the following composition : — 

Parts. 





I. 


11. 


III. 


IV 


Copper . 


. 77 


60 


65 


60 


Manganese 


. 25 


25 


20 


20 


Zinc 


. — 


15 


5 


— 


Tin 


. — 


— 


— 


10 


Nickel . 






10 


10 



ALLOYS OF COPPER, ETC. 257 

Alloys of copper and iron. — These alloys are at the 
present time but little used in the industries, but it 
seems that formerly they were frequently prepared for 
the purpose of imparting eonsiderable hardness to 
copper. Copper and iron unite in any proportions at 
high temperatures if the heat is sufficiently prolonged. 
The alloys possess considerable strength and great hard- 
ness, but these qualities are only found in such as have 
a certain composition ; with a constant increase of the 
content of iron the solidity decreases while the hardness 
increases. A copper and iron alloy which with consid- 
erable strength possesses also great hardness is composed 
of copper 66 parts, iron 34. 

It may here be remarked that the alloys of copper 
with iron acquire on exposure to the air a disagreeable 
color shading into black and are therefore not adapted 
for articles of art. 

Alloys of copper and lead. — An addition of lead to 
copper renders it softer and more ductile. Alloys of 
copper and lead are subject to separation or liquation, 
the lead separating out and leaving the copper in a 
porous mass, especially if the alloy is not quickly 
solidified. In preparing the alloys the copper is melted 
down under a cover of charcoal dust, the fire is then 
made as hot as possible and the lead quickly introduced 
into the overheated copper. As soon as all is melted, 
stir several times with an iron rod to make the alloy 
homogeneous and quickly pour the liquid mass into cold 
metallic moulds. On account of the above-mentioned 
liquation it is difficult to obtain faultless large castings 
of these alloys, and hence they are cast into thin plates, 

22* 



258 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

which are subsequently rolled out into sheets. The 
alloy forms a metal of gray color, brittle, and of feeble 
affinity. An alloy of copper 4 parts and lead 1 is some- 
times used for large type. 

Alloys of copper and arsenic. — Arsenic imparts to 
copper a very beautiful white color and great hardness 
and brittleness. Before German silver was known these 
alloys were sometimes used for the manufacture of cast 
articles which were not to come in contact with iron. 
On exposure to the air these alloys retain their white 
color only for a short time and acquire a brownish tinge. 
On account of this, as well as the poisonous character 
of arsenic and the difficulty of working them, these 
alloys are very little used at the present time. 

The alloy is best prepared by pressing a mixture of 
70 parts of copper in the form of fine shavings and 30 
parts of arsenic into a crucible and melting the mixture 
under a surface coating of glass in a furnace of good 
draught. 

Alloys of copper and cobalt. — These alloys show a red 
color and a fracture resembling that of pure copper. 
They are distinguished by great ductility and tenacity, 
and can be forged and stretched in the heat, but cannot 
be hardened. They are prepared by melting together 
copper and cobalt in a crucible under a cover of boric 
acid and charcoal. An alloy cast in grains, which is at- 
tracted by a magnet, is composed of cobalt 48.20 per 
cent., nickel 1, copper 50.26, and iron 0.46. It is red, 
while an alloy containing equal proportions of nickel 
and copper shows a white color. Alloys with 1 to 6 
per cent, of cobalt can be as readily forged, stretched, 



etc. 259 

and rolled in the heat as copper, but are considerably 
tougher. An alloy with 5 per cent, of cobalt shows es- 
pecially valuable properties ; it is non-oxidizable and 
ductile like copper, elastic and tough like iron, and will 
no doubt be applied to many purposes. 

Copper and silicon, with or without tin, may be al- 
loyed to form "silicon bronze." Weiller's alloy is made 
by the introduction of sodium to reduce silica in the 
crucible. The inventor recommends the following pro- 
portions : fluo-silicate of potash 450 parts by weight, 
glass in powder 600, chloride of sodium 250, carbonate 
of soda 75, carbonate of lime 60, and dried chloride of 
calcium 500. The mixture of these substances is heated 
in a plumbago retort to a temperature a little below the 
point when they begin to react on one another, and it is 
then placed in a copper or bronze bath, when the com- 
bination of silicium takes place. 

Silicon acts upon copper in almost exactly the same 
manner that phosphorus does, except that it appears to 
be a more natural alloy, and a flux or reducing agent to 
the oxide of copper that is produced when copper is in 
a melted condition, and it is thereby more active in 
clarifying, refining, hardening, and strengthening copper 
and its alloys. In this respect it is more vigorous and 
pronounced than phosphorus. 

The qualities that particularly recommend silicon- 
bronze are great strength and tenacity, high electrical 
conductivity, and resistance to corrosion. It is, there- 
fore, logically the best metal extant for electric-light, 
telephone, and telegraph wire. It can be made stronger 



260 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

than steel and yet may possess two or three times its 
conductivity. 

The early specimens of silicon-bronze wire for tele- 
graph purposes had a conductivity of 97 per cent., and 
a resistance to rupture of about 28J tons to the square 
inch ; that for telephone purposes having a conductivity 
of 32 per cent, and a resistance to rupture of 47J tons 
to the square inch. 

Quite recently there has been developed a new type 
of telegraph wire, possessing less conductivity than the 
former, but having considerably higher tensile strength, 
which allows the wire to be more tightly strained, while 
the posts may be placed at a greater distance apart. 
This new wire has a conductivity of 80 per cent, and a 
tensile strength varying from 35 to 37 tons to the square 
inch. At the same time the character of the telephone 
wire has also been changed, raising its conductivity to 
42 per cent, and its tensile strength to 52 tons. These 
wires are almost exclusively used for telephone lines at 
Prague, Trieste, Lemberg, and other European cities. 
The line at Trieste, in particular; has stood the test of 
violent storms completely, which is due to the small 
diameter of the conductor. A similar experience has 
been made at Rheims, where, in one case, a line having 
a span of more than a thousand feet was exposed to the 
action of the wind blowing directly across it. 

Its power of resisting snow has been equally well es- 
tablished. Thus, on an Austrian railway the engineer 
at the head of the telegraph department personally ex- 
amined the wires during a violent storm of damp snow, 
followed by a sharp frost, at a point where the line 



ALLOYS OF ALUMINIUM AND COPPER. 261 

crosses hilly ground at a height of about 2000 feet 
above the sea. The wires were well covered with snow 
and sagged considerably more than usual. In several 
instances by shaking the wire the snow was detached, 
when the conductors immediately assumed their normal 
deflections after the snow had melted. The Austrian 
railway company above mentioned has numerous lines 
on which the distance between posts varies from 328 to 
720 feet across flat country; in hilly districts the dis- 
tance ranges from 1 60 to 500 feet. 

During the last few years the u Italian General Tele- 
phone Company" has employed these silicon-bronze 
wires with spans as large as one thousand feet without 
any accident having occurred. In Vienna telephone 
posts are frequently placed at the same distance apart, 
and carry as many as 78 parallel wires. 



XXVII. 

ALLOYS OF ALUMINIUM AND COPPER. 

As stated in the general review of the metals alumin- 
ium is distinguished by a beautiful silvery color and 
great strength ; but it is especially valuable on account 
of its very small specific gravity, which is about that of 
glass. 

Among the alloys of aluminium that with copper is 
of special importance, but before entering on a descrip- 
tion of it we will briefly mention the behavior of alu- 
minium towards the other metals. The properties of its 



262 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

alloys with the precious metals, gold and silver, ap- 
proach nearest to those of the metal present in largest 
quantity. An alloy of aluminium 90 parts and gold 10 
equals in hardness a corresponding alloy of gold and 
silver and shows a beautiful yellow color. It can be 
readily worked under the hammer and rolled out to 
sheet. An alloy of aluminium with 5 parts of silver 
does not differ in its properties from pure aluminium, 
except that it is somewhat harder and takes a finer 
polish. It is used in making balances for chemists. 
With a content of iron of over 5 per cent, the alumin- 
ium becomes more refractory and at the same time 
brittle. The introduction of 0.1 per cent, of bismuth 
makes the metal so brittle that it can no longer be 
worked ; it breaks even if worked directly after anneal- 
ing. The presence of a small quantity of silicium gives 
to aluminium a strong crystalline structure, the crystal- 
lization being clearly perceptible on the surface by a 
peculiar net-like appearance of the metal. A content 
of 0.08 per cent, of aluminium is said greatly to im- 
prove steel. 

Aluminium-bronze. — The alloys of aluminium with 
copper show very different properties according to the 
quantity of aluminium they contain. Alloys containing 
but little copper cannot be used for industrial purposes. 
With 60 to 70 per cent, of aluminium they are very 
brittle, glass-hard, and beautifully crystalline. With 
50 per cent, the alloy is quite soft, but under 30 per 
cent, of aluminium the hardness returns. 

The usual alloys are those of 1, 2, 5, and 10 per cent, 
of aluminium. The 5 per cent, bronze is golden in 



ALLOYS OF ALUMINIUM AND COPPER. 263 

color, polishes well, casts beautifully, is very malleable 
cold or hot, and has great strength, especially after ham- 
mering. The 7.5 per cent, bronze is to be recommended 
as superior to the 5 per cent, bronze. It has a peculiar 
greenish-gold color, which makes it very suitable for 
decoration. All these good qualities are possessed by 
the 10 per cent, bronze. It is bright golden, keeps its 
polish in the air, may be easily engraved, shows an elas- 
ticity much greater than steel, and can be soldered with 
hard solder. When it is made by a simple mixing of 
ingredients, it is brittle and does not acquire^ its best 
qualities until after having been cast several times. 
After three or four meltings it reaches a maximum, at 
which point it may be melted several times without sen- 
sible change. It gives good castings of all sizes and 
runs in sand-moulds very uniformly. Thin castings 
come out very sharp, but if a casting is thin and sud- 
denly thickens, small off-shoots must be made at the 
thick place, into which the metal can run and then soak 
back into the casting as it cools and shrinks, thus avoid- 
ing cavities by shrinkage at the thick part. Its specific 
gravity is 7.68, about that of soft iron. Its strength 
when hammered is equal to the best steel. It may be 
forged at about the same heat as cast-steel and then 
hammered until it is almost cold without breaking or 
ripping. Tempering makes it soft and malleable. It 
does not foul a file and may be drawn into wire. Any 
part of a machine which is usually made of steel can be 
replaced by this bronze. 

The melting point of aluminium-bronze varies slightly 
with the content of aluminium, the higher grades melt- 



264 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ing at a somewhat lower temperature than the lower. 
The 10 per cent, bronze melts at about 1700° F., a 
little higher than ordinary bronze or brass. 

Aluminium-bronze shrinks about twice as much as 
brass, and hence due allowance has to be made for this 
in the mould and pattern. As the metal solidifies rap- 
idly, it is necessary to pour it quickly and to make the 
gates amply large so that there will be no "freezing" in 
the "gates" before the casting is properly fed. To ob- 
viate the shrinkage as much as possible, the metal is 
allowed to enter the mould at a temperature not higher 
than will admit of it running freely. When there is a 
heavy mass of metal in the shape of an envelope sur- 
rounding a core, the contraction upon solidification will 
cause the metal to split unless the core is made to yield 
equally with the contraction. Baked sand-moulds are 
preferable to green sand except for small castings. 

One of the chief difficulties met with in the casting 
of aluminium-bronze is to avoid oxidation in trans- 
ferring the metal from the crucible or ladle to the 
mould. If any of the film of oxide which floats on the 
surface should get into the casting during the pouring, 
it will appear there like so much dirt and is apt to cause 
trouble. The ordinary "skim-gate" will prevent this 
in the case of small castings, but with large masses the 
metal is first poured into a receiver, which is connected 
with and is part of the pouring "gate," but is prevented 
from entering the mould by means of a plug which 
closes up the mouth of the "gate." To illustrate this 
more clearly imagine the pouring "gate" shaped like a 
funnel into which the metal is first poured. It is pre- 



ALLOYS OF ALUMINIUM AND COPPER. 265 

vented from running into the mould by the plug already 
mentioned. As soon as the dirt has risen to the top, the 
plug is withdrawn, and consequently nothing but the 
clear metal at the bottom enters the mould. For cast- 
ings over 50 pounds the metal is poured from a large 
ladle through a hole in the bottom. Ample facilities 
should be made for the escape of gases. 

Both aluminium and copper volatilize only at ex- 
tremely high temperatures, and consequently aluminium- 
bronze can be remelted without any appreciable change 
in the strength or quality of the metal whatever. 

Aluminium bronze forges similarly to the best 
Swedish iron, but at a much lower temperature. It 
works best at a cherry red ; if this is much exceeded, 
the metal becomes hot, short, and is easily crushed. The 
temperature for rolling is a bright red heat, and it is a 
curious fact that if the metal were forged at the temper- 
ature it is rolled, it would be crushed to pieces. If the 
temperature in the ordinary muffle in which it is heated 
be allowed to rise too high, the bronze will frequently 
fall apart by its own weight. When in the rolls it acts 
very much like yellow Muntz metal. As it loses its 
heat much more rapidly than copper or iron, it has to 
be annealed frequently between rollings. 

The following examples of rolling are given by the 
"Cowle's Electric Smelting and Aluminium Company:" 
A billet of 10 per cent, bronze about 18" x lj"x 1^" 
was rolled in a Belgian train to quarter-inch rod, at one 
annealing. The 5 per cent, bronze is harder to roll hot 
than the 10 per cent., but in cold rolling just the re- 
verse is true ; a piece of 5 per cent, sheeting, 8 inches 
23 



266 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

wide, has been reduced 8 gauge numbers when rolled 
cold at one annealing; while a 10 per cent, sheet could 
not be reduced more than half that number. The bil- 
lets for rolling can be best prepared by casting in iron 
moulds previously rubbed with a mixture of plumbago, 
pipe-clay, and lard oil. The metal chills very quickly 
and very smooth castings can be produced, the smooth- 
ness depending considerably on the speed of pouring. 
With care the 5 and 10 per cent, bronzes can be easily 
drawn into wire. It is preferable, however, to roll the 
5 per cent, to quarter inch rods and the 10 per cent, to 
a less diameter, and anneal them. The metal thus pre- 
pared is much tougher and less liable to break in draw- 
ing. The dies must be very hard, or the ordinary wire, 
and especially the higher grades, are apt to cut them. 
The speed of the draw blocks must be less than for iron, 
brass, copper, German silver, or soft steel, and the reduc- 
tion must be more gradually effected. 

Aluminium bronze is, in every respect, considered 
the best bronze yet known. Its high cost alone pre- 
vents its extensive use in the arts, but since the perfec- 
tion of Cowle's electric furnace, described on page 47, 
and the erection of several other factories, among which 
the one in Germany, at Hamelingen near Bremen, is 
designed to produce aluminium, magnesium and kin- 
dred metals by process of electric smelting, the cost of 
manufacture has been greatly reduced. 

The following results were obtained at the South 
Boston Iron Works, with pieces of the Cowle's Com- 
pany alloys, February, 1886 : — 



ALLOYS OF ALUMINIUM AND COPPER. 



267 





Tensile strength, 






Aluminium bronze. 


pounds per 


Elastic limit. 


per cent. 




square inch. 




10 per cent, bronze . . 


91,463 





1* 


10 






92,441 


59,815 


n 


10 






96,434 


85,034 


i 


9 






77,062 


51,774 


9 


9 






71,698 


44,025 


9 


gi « 






72,019 


— 


28± 


n " 






60,716 


45,537 


6 



The following tests were made at the Washington 
Navy Yard of pieces very nearly half an inch in diame- 
ter and two inches between shoulders : — 



Aluminium bronze. 


Tensile strength, 
pounds per 
square inch. 


Elastic limit. 


Elongation, 
per cent. 


10 per cent, bronze . . 
10 " " 
10 " 


114,514 

95,366 
109,823 


69,749 

79,894 


0.45 
0.05 
0.05 



According to Thurston, the alloys of aluminium and 
copper may be made by fusing together the oxides with 
metallic copper and enough carbon and flux to reduce 
them. The oxides as well as the other materials should 
be as finely divided as possible, and the carbon intro- 
duced in excess. 

A number of remarkable and useful alloys are made 
by mixing aluminium bronzes with nickel in various 
proportions. These compositions are said to be very 
ductile and to have a tenacity of from 75,000 to over 
100,000 lbs. per square inch with about 30 per cent, 
elongation. Tests made by Kirkaldy on alloys of a 



268 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

similar nature made by the "Webster Crown Metal 
Company, " England, give results ranging from 82,000 
to over 100,000. 

According to J. Webster, for preparing the bronze two 
alloys are used, which are designated as aluminium alloy 
(A) and nickel alloy (B). A consists of 15 parts of 
aluminium and 85 of tin, and B of 17 parts of nickel, 
17 of copper, and 66 of tin. The metals are melted 
together in the usual manner with the use of a flux 
under a cover of common salt and chloride of potash. 
The two alloys are then melted together with copper. 
It has been found that the bronze is the harder and 
better, the more it contains of the two alloys and vice 
versa. The following is given as the best proportion : 
Copper, 88 parts, and 8 parts of each of A and B. 
When the copper is melted the alloys are added, and 
melted, being stirred with a wooden or clay rod (an iron 
rod must not be used under any conditions), until the 
mass is homogeneous, which is recognized by a test- 
ingot. A second quality of aluminium bronze, which 
is cheaper than the preceding, is composed of ( J2 parts 
of copper, and 4 parts each of the alloys A and B. 

The addition of a few per cent, of aluminium to com- 
mon brass greatly increases its tenacity and resistance 
to corrosion. Alloys containing copper, zinc, and alu- 
minium between the following limits, 

Copper . . . . . 67 to 71 per cent. 

Zinc 27£ " 30 " 

Aluminium . . . . 1| " 3 " 

and combined in different proportions, give tenacities 
from a little above 30,000 to over 65,000 lbs. per square 



ALLOYS OF ALUMINIUM AND COPPER. 269 

inch. Alloys with much less copper and more zinc 
— 55.8 to 57 per cent, copper and 42 to 43 per cent, 
zinc — approach nearer 70,000 lbs., and a specimen com- 
posed of copper 67.4 per cent., zinc 26.8, and alumi- 
nium 5.8 broke at over 95,000 lbs. tenacity per square 
inch. 

There is at present one great drawback to the use of 
aluminium-bronzes for small manufactured articles — the 
difficulty of soldering. In a pamphlet issued by the 
"Cowle's Electric Smelting and Aluminium Company" 
the following directions are given : — 

Brazing. — Aluminium-bronze will braze as well as 
any other metal, using one-quarter brass solder (zinc 50 
per cent., copper 50 per cent.) and three-quarters borax. 

Soldering. — To solder aluminium-bronze with ordi^ 
nary soft (pewter) solder : Cleanse well the parts to be 
joined free from dirt and grease. Then place the parts 
to be soldered in a strong solution of sulphate of copper, 
and place in the bath a rod of soft iron touching the 
parts to be joined. After a while a copper-like surface 
will be seen on the metal. Remove from bath, rinse 
quite clean, and brighten the surfaces. These surfaces 
can then be tinned by using a fluid consisting of zinc 
dissolved in hydrochloric acid in the ordinary way with 
common soft solder. 

Mierzinski recommends ordinary hard solder, and 
says that Hulot uses an alloy of the usual half-and-half 
lead-tin solder with 12.5, 25, or 50 per cent, of zinc 
amalgam. 

Aluminium-bronze for jewelry may be soldered by 
using the following composition : — 

23* 



270 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Hard solder for 10 per cent, aluminium-bronze. — Gold 
88.88 per cent,, silver 4.68, copper 6.44. 

Middling hard solder for 10 per cent, aluminium- 
bronze. — Gold 54.40 per cent., silver 27.60, copper 18. 

Soft solder for aluminium-bronze. — Brass (copper 70 
per cent., tin 30 per cent.) 14.30 per cent., gold 14.30, 
silver 57.10, copper 14.30. 

Alloy of aluminium and chromium. — With chromium, 
aluminium forms a beautiful alloy, which can be pre- 
pared by a tedious operation in the form of crystalline 
needles. It has no technical application, and is here 
simply mentioned for the sake of completeness. 

Alloy of aluminium and tin. — An alloy, the use of 
which it is claimed overcomes the difficulties of working 
and welding aluminium, is formed by melting together 
100 parts of aluminium with 10 of tin. The alloy is 
whiter than aluminium and but little heavier, its specific 
gravity being 2.85. By most substances it is less at- 
tacked than pure aluminium, and it can be welded and 
soldered like brass without any special preparation. 

Aluminium and iron. — Ostberg, a Swedish inventor, 
has lately devised an ingenious process of making cast- 
ings (clean and sharp) of wrought-iron, or, as they are 
called, ruitis castings, by taking advantage of the obser- 
vation which he made that the addition of an extremely 
small quantity of aluminium to wrought-iron, kept at 
a white heat in a crucible, forms a combination which 
has a much lower point of fusion than wrought-iron. 

In making mitis castings a very small quantity, about 
ToVo °f 1 P er cen t., of aluminium, in the form of a 7 
or 8 per cent, aluminium alloys of cast-iron, is added to 



TIN-ALLOYS. 271 

the charge (about 60 pounds) of wrought-iron in the 
crucible the moment this has been melted. The fusing 
point is at once lowered some 500° F., and the charge, 
now an alloy of iron and aluminium, becomes extremely 
fluid and can be cast in the finest moulds, while the 
great difference between its temperature and its fusing 
point gives all the time necessary for manipulating it 
without danger of its solidifying. The extreme fluidity 
of the charge allows the ready escape of the gases, 
which otherwise would make a porous casting, and the 
result appears to be a remarkably fine, solid, and tough 
casting of wrought-iron. 

These mitis castings are said to be from 30 to 50 per 
cent, stronger than the iron from which they are made, 
but though aluminium undoubtedly greatly increases the 
strength of most of the metals with which it alloys, it 
is not credited with the increase of strength in this case, 
for it is said that after hammering the mitis metal loses 
its increase in strength and returns to the fibrous ap- 
pearance and to the strength of the original iron. 



XXVIII. 

TIN-ALLOYS. 



As will be seen from the preceding alloys tin is much 
used in the preparation of mixtures of metals, and al- 
though soft in itself, it has the property of hardening 
many other soft metals. Tin by itself is actually only 



272 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

used for tinning iron, etc.; for casting it is in most cases 
used in the form of an alloy. 

Alloys of tin and lead. — Tin and lead alloy freely in 
all proportions, and the two metals are frequently found 
associated in nature. The alloys are easily made, and 
they generally impart more resistance to the lead with- 
out sensibly impairing the qualities of the tin. It 
would not be impossible to ascertain the proportion of 
lead in the alloy by the behavior of the latter under a 
chisel, a punch, and by the streak it leaves upon paper. 
Lead added to tin increases its malleability and ductility, 
but diminishes its tenacity. Difficult to break even 
after successive bendings, tin becomes more brittle when 
alloyed with lead. The fracture is then more marked 
than that of lead, whatever may be the proportions in the 
alloy, the latter metal being more easily separated than 
tin, but requiring, however, to be torn asunder. The 
strongest alloy of tin and lead is produced by alloying 
tin 3 parts and lead 1, the density of this alloy being 8. 
According to Watson, the densities of alloys of tin and 
lead are as follows : — 

l 11.3 

10 1 7.2 

32 1 7.3 

16 1 ...... 7.4 

8 1 7.6 

4 1 ..... 7.8 

2 1 ..... 8.2 

1 1 8.8 

Alloys of tin and lead were formerly much used in 
the manufacture of domestic utensils. They are, how- 



TIN- ALLOYS. 273 

ever, not suitable for this purpose on account of the sol- 
ubility and poisonous properties of the lead. Under no 
circumstances should an alloy of tin and lead used in 
the manufacture of domestic utensils contain more than 
10 to 15 per cent, of lead. Such an alloy is not sensibly 
attacked by vinegar and fruit acids. But unfortunately 
there are cases in which the so-called tin contains as 
much as one-third of its weight of lead. 

Alloys containing from 10 to 15 percent, of lead have 
a beautiful white color, are considerably harder than pure 
tin and much cheaper. Many alloys of tin and lead have 
an especially lustrous appearance and are used for stage- 
jewelry and mirrors for reflecting the light of lamps, 
etc. An especially lustrous alloy is known under the 
name of Fahlun brilliants. It is used for stage-jewelry 
and consists of tin 29 parts, lead 19. The alloy is 
poured into moulds faceted in the same manner as dia- 
monds. Seen in an artificial light, the pieces of metal 
thus cast are so brilliant as to produce the effect of dia- 
monds. Other alloys of tin and lead of some import- 
ance are those used in the manufacture of toys (tin 
soldiers). They must fill the moulds well and be cheap, 
and, consequently, as much as 50 per cent, of lead is 
used. With the use of sharp iron or brass moulds such 
an alloy yields good castings. Toys can also be prepared 
from type-metal, which is even cheaper than alloys of 
tin and lead, but has the disadvantage of readily break- 
ing on sharply bending the articles. 

In the following table the melting points of alloys of 
tin and lead as determined by Messrs. Parkes and Mar- 
tin are given : — 



274 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Composition. 


Melting 


Composition. 


Melting 

points. 

Degrees F. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


points. 
Degrees F. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


4 


4 


3720 


4 


28 


527° 


6 


4 


336 


4 


30 


530 


8 


4 


340 


4 


32 


532 


10 


4 


348 


4 


34 


535 


12 


4 


336 


4 


36 


538 


14 


4 


362- 


4 


38 


540 


16 


4 


367 


4 


40 


542 


18 


4 


372 


4 


42 


544 


20 


4 


378 


4 


44 


546 


22 


4 


380 


4 


46 


548 


24 


4 


382 


4 


48 


550 


4 


4 


392 


4 


50 


551 


4 


6 


412 


4 . 


52 


552 


4 


8 


442 


4 


54 


554 


4 


10 


470 


4 


56 


555 


4 


12 


482 


4 


58 


556 


4 


14 


490 


4 


60 


557 


4 


16 


498 


4 


62 


557 


4 


18 


505 


4 


64 


557 


4 


20 


512 


4 


66 


557 


4 


22 


517 


4 


68 


557 


4 


24 


519 


4 


70 


558 


4 


26 


523 









For baths used by cutlers and others in tempering 
and heating steel articles, Parkes and Martin propose 
the following alloys : — 



BRITANNIA METAL. 



275 



10 
11 
12 



Use. 



Lancets 

Other surgical instruments 

Razors 

Pen-knives 

Knives, scalpels, etc. 
Chisels, garden knives . 

Hatchets 

Table knives .... 
Swords, watch springs . 
Large springs, small saws 

Hand saws 

Articles of low temper . 



Compo 


sitiou. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


7 


4 


7* 


4 


8 


4 


H 


4 


10 


4 


14 


4 


19 


4 


30 


4 


48 


4 


50 


4 


Oil boiling 


1 


4 



Melting 

points. 

Degrees F. 



420O 

430 

442 

450 

470 

490 

509 

530 

550 

558 

600 

612 



XXIX. 



BRITANNIA METAL. 

The alloy known under this name consists principally 
of tin alloyed with antimony. Many varieties contain 
only these two metals and may be considered tin hardened 
by antimony. Other alloys, also called Britannia metal, 
contain, however, in addition, certain quantities of cop- 
per, sometimes lead, and occasionally, though rarely, 
bismuth. 

The Pewterers' Company of England, which has been 
an incorporated society ever since the reign of Edward 
IV. (1474), in 1772 attempted to regulate the quality of 
pewter wares by permitting enough lead to bring the 
density of pewter from yff-j to rfM? that of tin. Per- 
sons who departed from this regulation were liable to 



276 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

expulsion from the guild, but it has been so greatly dis- 
regarded as to have very little effect in keeping up the 
standard of pewter. 

Britannia metal has always a silvery color with a 
bluish tinge, and, on account of its hardness, takes a fine 
polish, which it retains on exposure to the air. Though 
it is quite hard, in strength it only slightly surpasses tin. 
Good Britannia metal shows a fine-grained, jagged frac- 
ture ; if the fracture be quite coarse and strongly crys- 
talline the alloy contains too much antimony, and, as a 
rule, is too brittle to be worked to advantage. 

Even with a correct composition the brittleness of 
Britannia metal is such that in rolling it out to sheet the 
edges generally become full of cracks. A content of 
iron or zinc increases this brittleness to a considerable 
extent, and, in preparing an alloy to be rolled out into 
.sheet or to be used for stamped articles, great care must 
be had to have the metals to be used, entirely free from 
iron or zinc. A content of copper increases the ductility 
of Britannia metal but decreases its fusibility, which is 
one of its most valuable properties, and besides gives to 
the color a strong yellowish cast. An addition of lead 
is of advantage especially to metal to be principally used 
for castings, it becoming more fusible thereby and filling 
out the moulds better, but its color acquires a strong 
brownish cast, and articles manufactured from it lose 
their lustre on exposure to the air much more quickly 
than those containing no lead. 

A large content of antimony, to be sure, imparts great 
hardness and a permanent brilliant lustre to Britannia 
metal, but it also decreases its ductility. And, more- 



BRITANNIA METAL. 277 

over, the antimony possessing poisonous properties its 
use must be restricted, especially if the alloy is to be 
employed in the manufacture of domestic utensils, such 
as coffee and tea pots, etc. It need scarcely be said that 
for sanitary reasons the antimony must be free from 
arsenic, and besides a very small content of it renders 
the alloy extremely brittle, and articles manufactured 
from it tarnish quickly, especially on exposure to moist 
air. Alloys consisting of tin and antimony alone would 
seem to deserve the preference, and a composition of tin 
90 parts, antimony 10, can be especially recommended 
as regards resistance to chemical influences and facility 
of working. 

For most purposes, not requiring a special degree of 
hardness, this alloy is the most suitable, it being readily 
fusible and filling the moulds out well. For articles 
subjected to constant wear a harder alloy is required. 

The following table shows the composition of several 
varieties of Britannia metal : — 



24 



278 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 









Pa 


rts. 






Britannia metal. 
















Tin. 


Anti- 
mony. 


Copper. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


Bis- 
muth. 


English 


81.90 


16.25 


1.84 


_ 


_ 




" 


90.62 


7.81 


1.46 


— 


— 


— 


<< 


90.1 


6.3 


3.1 


0.5 


— 


— 


(< 


85.4 


9.66 


0.81 


3.06 


— 


— 


Pewter 


81.2 


5.7 


1.60 


— 


1.15 


— 


a 


89.3 


7.6 


1.8 


— 


1.8 


— 


a 


83.30 


6.60 


1.60 


3.06 


— 


1.60 


Tutania 


91.4 


— 


0.7 


0.3 


7.6 


— 


Queen's metal . . . 


88.5 


7.1 


3.5 


0.9 


— 


— 


German 


72 


24 


4 


— 


— 


— 


1 1 


84 


9 


2 


5 


— 


— 


" (cast) . . . 


20 


64 


10 


6 


— 


— 


Malleable (cast) . . 


48 


— 


3 


48 


— 


1 


Birmingham (sheet) . 


90.60 


7.80 


1.50 


— 


— 


— 


" (cast) . 


90.71 


9.20 


0.09 


— 


— 


— 


Karmarsch's . . . 


85.0 


5.0 


3.60 


1.40 


— 


1.60 


Koeller's .... 


85.70 


10.40 


1.00 


— 


— 


1.80 


Wagner's (fine) . . 


85.64 


9.66 


0.81 


3.06 


— 


0.S3 



Britannia wares made in Sheffield are often composed 
of block tin 3 J parts, antimony 28, copper 8, brass 8. 

Dr. Karl Karmarsch, who has thoroughly studied the 
properties of Britannia metals, says that the specific 
gravity of the alloys is 7.339 for laminated sheets, and 
7.361 for casting. He explains this anomaly by 
the fact that the molecules, under the action of the 
rollers, have a tendency to become separated, their soft- 
ness and malleability not being great enough to allow 
of a regular and uniform compression. This is not an 
isolated fact. M. LeBrun has also found a lower spe- 
cific gravity for certain alloys of copper and zinc which 
had been laminated or hammered. 

Britannia metal is prepared by first melting the cop- 



BRITANNIA METAL.- 279 

per by itself, then adding a portion of the tin and the 
entire quantity of the antimony. The fire can then be 
quickly moderated, because the new alloy has a much 
lower melting point than copper. 

The last quantity of tin is finally added, and the alloy 
uninterruptedly stirred for some time to make it 
thoroughly homogeneous. 

Britannia metal can be brought into determined 
shapes by pressing and rolling, which will be referred 
to later on, but it being always to some extent brittle, it 
is preferred to prepare many articles by direct casting. 
To obtain clean and beautiful casting, requiring but little 
after manipulation, it is best to use brass moulds. Be- 
fore casting the moulds have to be strongly heated and 
the interior lined with a special coating to prevent the 
alloy from adhering. This is effected by means of a 
mixture of lamp-black and oil of turpentine, or by 
lamp-black alone, and, though the first process is the 
more simple and convenient, the latter is preferable, 
especially for casting fine articles. The moulds can be 
so coated as to be beautiful and uniform by using an 
ordinary lamp, similar to a spirit lamp, filled with oil 
of turpentine. By holding the cold mould over the 
dull flame of such a lamp, it becomes coated with a deli- 
cate film of a velvety black soot which, while it preserves 
all the fine lines of the mould, prevents the alloy from 
adhering. 

Instead of lamp-black, some manufacturers use finely 
elutriated reddle or red chalk mixed to a uniform mass 
with water. With moulds having many small and 
at the same time deep turns, it is difficult perfectly to 



280 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

coat the inside with the protecting mass, and the coating 
with lamp-black is decidedly to be 'preferred. 

With ordinary moulds it is, of course, impossible to 
cast an article which is to have a certain shape, in one 
piece. The different parts are consequently cast sepa- 
rately, and subsequently put together with a solder of a 
color as nearly like that of the metal as possible. Such 
articles can, however, be also cast in one piece. We will 
take, for example, an article frequently made of Bri- 
tannia metal : a coffee-pot, whose shape is such that it 
must consist of several pieces. To cast it in one piece, 
the mould must be so constructed that it can be com- 
pletely removed from the finished casting. 

The separate parts of the mould having been coated 
with lamp-black, or reddle, are put together, and the 
whole heated nearly to the temperature of the melted 
Britannia metal. The latter is then poured into the 
mould until it seems entirely filled. After waiting 
until it may be supposed that a sufficiently thick layer 
of metal is solidified the mould is quickly turned over 
to allow the still liquid portion of the metal to run out. 

In order to obtain castings of the right condition, this 
mode of procedure requires considerable practical skill, 
it being necessary to hit the exact moment at which the 
layer of metal has acquired the required thickness, and 
before succeeding the operator may be prepared to meet 
with many failures. But by noting by means of a 
watch the time allowed to pass between pouring the 
metal into the mould, and pouring the still liquid por- 
tion out, the exact time required for the formation of a 
sufficiently thick layer will soon be learned. 



BRITANNIA METAL. 281 

The inside of the articles obtained by the above mode 
of casting is sometimes roughly crystalline. This is 
due to the metal beginning to crystallize, and the cor- 
ners and edges of the small crystals being exposed by 
pouring out the liquid portion of the metal. Care must 
therefore be had to use for such casting an alloy giving 
a fine-grained mass. The interior of the articles, as far 
as accessible, can also be smoothed, while the article is 
still in the mould, with a burnishing stone or burnisher. 

For articles to be made by stamping or other mechani- 
cal process, the alloy resulting from melting the metals 
together is ladled into cast-iron boxes, and the slabs 
thus made are subsequently rolled into sheet. Spheri- 
cal vessels are usually "spun up" in halves, which are 
then united by soldering, and smaller articles are 
generally pressed in moulds by a stamping press of very 
simple construction. 

Cast or stamped Britannia metal has always an un- 
sightly gray white appearance, the innumerable small 
crystals of which the surface of the articles is composed 
preventing a complete reflection of the light. The 
articles must, therefore, be polished, which is effected 
with a burnisher, or, if their shape permits, upon the 
lathe by means of wooden disks covered with leather 
rubbed with emery. 

A great many articles of Britannia metal are at the 
present time silvered by the galvanic process, the same 
as other objects of German silver, which are so well 
manufactured in England, Germany, and this country, 
that it is difficult to distinguish them from pure silver. 

24* 



282 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

In some cases the Britannia metal is covered, by gal- 
vanism, with a deposit of tombac. 

Biddery metal. — The name of this alloy is derived 
from Biddery, a city of the East Indies. It may be 
classed among the alloys known under the collective 
term of Britannia metal, but differs from it in contain- 
ing lead instead of antimony. 

Genuine Indian Biddery metal, which is frequently 
imitated in England, consists of — 

Parts. 



Copper 
Zinc 
Tin 
Lead 



I. 


II. 


3.5 


11.4 


93.4 


84.3 


— 


1.4 


3.1 


2.9 



According to Dr. Hamilton, who had occasion to wit- 
ness the operation, 123.6 parts of zinc, 4.6 of copper, 
and 4.14 of lead, together with a mixture of resin and 
wax to prevent oxidation, are melted together in a cru- 
cible. The fused metal is poured into clay moulds and 
the articles finished with the lathe. The Indian artists 
impart to the articles a beautiful velvety-black color by 
treatment with a solution of sulphate of copper, and 
decorate the surface in a very peculiar and original man- 
ner. By means of a graver, lines forming frequently 
very artistic designs are cut into the surface. The lines 
are then inlaid with fine gold and silver wire, pressed in 
by means of a burnishing stone, after which the articles 
are carefully polished. The beauty of the black coat- 
ing being somewhat marred by the manipulation is re- 
stored by treating the articles with a solution of sulphate 



BRITANNIA METAL. 283 

of copper, sal ammoniac, and saltpetre, and finally 
polishing with very fine polishing agents. 

The finished articles have a peculiar appearance, the 
gold and silver designs upon a velvety-blackground pre- 
senting frequently a striking resemblance to an embroid- 
ery executed in gold and silver threads upon black 
velvet. 

There are several other alloys somewhat resembling 
Britannia metal which are known under various names. 
Of these we mention : — 

Ashberry metal. — It is composed of — ■ 

Parts. 









I. 


II. 


Copper 


. 


. ■ 


. 2.0 


3.0 


Tin 


. 


. 


. 80.0 


79.0 


Antimony 


. 


. 


. 14.0 


15.0 


Zinc 


. 


. 


. 1.0 


2.0 


Nickel 


. 


. 


. 2.0 


1.0 


Aluminium 






. 1.0 


— 



Minofor metal. — This alloy is composed of — ■ 

Parts. 

i7 fi. 

Copper 3.26 4 

Tin 67.53 66 

Antimony 17.00 20 

Zinc 8.94 9 

Iron — 1 

This alloy, as well as the Ashberry metal, is employed 
for making forks and spoons, coffee-pots, tea-pots, and 
all similar articles generally made of ordinary Britannia 
metal, composed of 9 parts of tin and 1 of antimony. 



284 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Britannia metal in fact surpasses both the Ashberry and 
Minofor metals in beauty, but the latter are harder. 

English metal is a more complex alloy and is composed 
of: Tin 88 parts, pure copper 2, brass (copper 75, zinc 
25), 2, nickel 2, bismuth 1, antimony 8, tungsten 2. 



XXX. 

LEAD ALLOYS. 

Ox account of its softness and slight solidity lead in 
a pure state is but little used except for pipes, foil, and 
for certain chemical purposes. Some of its alloys are, 
however, of great importance, and are generally used, 
notwithstanding many efforts to replace them, especially 
for typographical purposes. An addition of other metals 
generally makes the lead harder and more or less injures 
its ductility. An addition of copper imparts to the alloy 
greater hardness without impairing its ductility to a great 
extent, and if the content of copper be small such an 
alloy can be drawn to pipes or rolled out to thin sheet. 

A content of arsenic, antimony, and tin increases the 
hardness of lead, but considerably impairs its ductility. 
The affinity of zinc and iron for lead being very small 
it is difficult to prepare alloys with them. The most im- 
portant alloys of lead are type-metal and shot-metal; 
the first, generally, an alloy of lead with antimony, and 
the latter, one with arsenic. 

Tyjie-metal. — An alloy to serve for type-metal must 
allow of being readily cast, fill the moulds sharply, and 



LEAD ALLOYS. 285 

at the same time be as hard as possible. Though it is 
difficult entirely to satisfy these demands an alloy con- 
sisting of lead and antimony answers the purpose best. 
Antimony increases the hardness of lead and renders it 
very brittle if present in too large a proportion. An 
alloy of lead 76 parts, and antimony 24, appears to be 
the point of saturation of the two metals. More fusible 
than the average fusibility of the two component metals, 
ductile and considerably harder than lead, this alloy ex- 
pands in cooling, and to this property is due its employ- 
ment for the manufacture of type. But the above com- 
pound does not answer perfectly well, especially' for small 
type. When too soft it gets out of shape, when too hard 
it cuts the paper; and it happens very often that the 
founder passes to one or the other extreme. When the 
alloy is melted in contact with the air antimony is oxi- 
dized much before lead, and this accounts for the diffi- 
culty of obtaining an exact composition. It is a con- 
stant subject of study for type-founders to arrive at a 
fusible and homogeneous metal with much expansion, 
resisting as much as possible, and, at the same time, soft 
enough to be repaired and to bear the action of the press 
without being soon put out of shape. 

The alloy of equal proportions is dry, porous, and 
brittle. These defects increase in the same ratio as the 
proportion of antimony. On the other hand they dis- 
appear when the lead takes the place of antimony. An 
alloy of lead 4 parts and antimony 1 is compact, much 
harder than lead, and remains malleable. 

An alloy of antimony 1 part and lead 8 possesses 
much tenacity and a specific gravity greater than the 



2SCy 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



proportional specific gravity of the two metals. It is 
more malleable than the preceding alloy and retains a 
certain hardness. The hardness imparted by antimony, 
the increase of tenacity, and that of the specific gravity 
are very perceptible up to the alloy of antimony 1 part 
and lead 16. 

At present a great many receipts for type metal are 
known, in the preparation of which other metals besides 
lead and antimony are used for the purpose of render- 
ing the alloy more fusible (additions of bismuth as im- 
parting to them greater power of resistance, copper and 
iron having been recommended for the purpose). By 
such admixtures the fusibility of the alloys is, however, 
impaired, and the manufacture of the types becomes 
much more difficult than with an alloy of lead and an- 
timony alone. In the following table some alloys suit- 
able for casting type are given : — 







Parts. 


Metals. 


I. 


IF. 


in. 

10 
1 


IV. 

10 

2 

1 


v. 

70 

18 
2 

10 


VI. 

60 
20 

20 


VII. 

55 

25 

20 


VIII. 

55 
30 

15 


IX. 


X. 


Lead . . 

Antimony 
Copper . 
Bismuth 
Zinc . 
Tin . . 
Nickel . 




3 

1 


5 
1 


100 
30 

8 
2 

20 

8 


6 

4 

90 



The manufacture of the types from the alloy is seldom 
effected by cold stamping in steel moulds, the process 
being very expensive ; hence they are generally cast, 
to the old process the types are cast piece by 



According 



LEAD ALLOYS. 287 

piece by means of a small casting ladle, but for types 
with a large face and much detail, the motion of the 
hand is barely sufficient to give the momentum required 
to throw the metal into the matrix and produce a clean, 
sharp impression. A machine is then used, which may 
be compared to a small forcing-pump, by which the 
mould is filled with the fluid metal ; but from the 
greater difficulty of allowing the air to escape such types 
are in general considerably more unsound in the shaft 
or body, so that an equal bulk of them only weigh 
about three-fourths as much as types cast in the ordinary 
way by hand, and which for general purposes *is prefer- 
able and more economical. 

Some other variations are resorted to in type-found- 
ing ; sometimes the mould is filled twice, at other 
times the faces of the types are dabbed (the cliche pro- 
cess), many of the large types and ornaments are stereo- 
typed and either soldered to metal bodies or fixed by 
nails to wooden blocks. The music type and orna- 
mental borders and dashes display much curious power 
of combination. Plates for engraving music are gene- 
rally made of tin 5 to 7.5 parts, antimony 5 to 2.5. 

Ehrhardt's type-metal is composed of zinc 89 parts, 
tin 4, lead 3, copper 4; or zinc 93 parts, tin 3, lead 3, 
copper 2. 

Type-metal being easily cast may also be used for 
candlesticks, statuettes, etc., sand moulds being gene- 
rally employed for the purpose, though for decorated ar- 
ticles metallic moulds thoroughly rubbed inside with oil 
can be advantageously used. 



288 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

An alloy for keys of flutes and similar parts of instru- 
ments consists of lead 2 parts, antimony 1. 

Shot-metal. — The mixture of metal used for the man- 
ufacture of shot consists of lead and arsenic. The 
latter, as previously mentioned, possesses the property of 
hardening lead, the alloy being at the same time more 
fusible than pure lead. Shot, as we know, is prepared 
by letting fall from an elevated place drops of lead into 
water, and an addition of a very small quantity of ar- 
senic to the lead helps its solidification and gives to the 
shot a more spherical shape. 

On account of the poisonous properties of the arsen- 
ious vapors certain precautions have to be observed in 
preparing the alloy. In a cast-iron pot provided with a 
well-fitting lid the lead is first melted and then covered 
with a layer of charcoal dust. Only after this is done 
should the arsenic or arsenious combination to be used 
be introduced. In many shot-factories this precaution 
is omitted, which, however, deserves censure, as every- 
thing should be done to protect the workmen from the 
injurious eifects of the poisonous arsenious vapors. If 
the metal is covered with a layer of charcoal dust, the 
vapors cannot reach the air as easily as when the bright 
metal is in direct contact with the air. White arsenic 
(arsenious acid) is generally used as an addition to the 
lead, though in some cases red arsenic (realgar or red 
orpiment) is employed. Immediately after the intro- 
duction of the arsenic the mass is vigorously stirred with 
a wooden rod, and the pot is then covered with the lid, 
which is luted around the edges with moist clay. 

A strong fire is now kept up to render the contents of 



LEAD ALLOYS. 289 

the pot thinly fluid, After about three hours the lid is 
removed and the charcoal and oxides floating upon the 
surface being carefully lifted off, the alloy is poured with 
ladles into moulds. This alloy serves for the prepara- 
tion of the actual shot-lead, which is prepared by melt- 
ing lead and adding a certain quantity of the alloy of 
lead and arsenic. It is in all cases preferable first to 
prepare the arsenious alloy in the manner prescribed, it 
being otherwise difficult intimately and homogeneously to 
combine the lead with the comparatively small quantity 
of arsenic required for shot-metal. 

In working by the preceding process generally 1000 
parts of lead are alloyed with 20 of arsenic, and equal 
parts of this alloy and of lead are subsequently melted 
together. For the direct preparation of the alloy of 
lead and arsenic for shot 2.4 parts of arsenious acid are 
used for 600 parts of refined lead, or 3.0 parts of arsenic 
to 700 parts of lead. As will be seen the quantity of 
arsenic is exceedingly small, and should in no case ex- 
ceed that actually required for hardening the lead and 
rendering it easy to cast. The quantity considered neces- 
sary for this varies much in different countries. While, 
for instance, in England 10 parts of arsenic are allowed 
for 1100 parts of lead, in France 3 to 8 parts are con- 
sidered sufficient for 1000 parts of lead. 

This variation in the proportions of arsenic used for 
hardening the lead is readily accounted for by the dif- 
ference in the qualities of the lead used ; the purer and 
softer the lead the greater the quantity of arsenic re- 
quired. But under no circumstances should good shot- 
25 



290 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

metal contain more than from j-q-q-q to y-J-jnj- of the 
weight of lead used. 

Both a too small or too large content of arsenic is 
injurious ; if the lead contains too little arsenic, -the re- 
sulting shot has the shape of tears, and the interior is 
frequently full of cavities, while with too much arsenic 
the drops are lenticular. As even with much experience 
it is quite difficult to hit at once the right proportion, it 
is advisable, before melting together large quantities 
of lead and arsenic, first to make tests with small quan- 
tities. From the shape of the shot obtained from these 
samples it can be readily judged whether the proportions 
are right or in what respect they have to be changed. 

Many manufacturers of shot, it would seem, vary 
the compositions of the alloys used by them, for, 
besides lead and arsenic, other metals are frequently 
found in shot, especially antimony and copper, though 
the latter only in exceedingly small quantities. The 
content of antimony is, however, larger, reaching in 
many cases 2 per cent, of the total weight, and from 
this it would appear that the manufacturers endeavor to 
replace the arsenic by antimony. 

Casting of shot. — According to the old method, shot is 
prepared by allowing the melted metal to fall in drops 
from a tower of considerable height. This method is 
said to have originated with a plumber of Bristol, Eng- 
land, named Watts, who, about the year 1782, dreamed 
that he was out in a shower of rain, that the clouds 
rained lead instead of water, and the drops of lead were 
perfectly spherical. He determined to try the experi- 
ment, and, accordingly, poured some melted lead from 



LEAD ALLOYS. 291 

the tower of St. Mary Redcliffe Church into some water 
below ; the plan succeeded and he sold the invention for 
a large sum of money. 

For the carrying out of this invention shot-towers and 
shot-wells have been constructed. At the top of the 
tower melted lead is poured into a colander and the 
drops are received into a vessel of water below. The 
surface of the lead becomes covered with a spongy crust 
of oxide called cream, which is used to coat over the 
bottom of the colander to prevent the lead from run- 
ning too rapidly through the holes, whereby they would 
form oblong spheroids instead of spheres. The colan- 
ders are hollow hemispheres of sheet-iron, the holes in 
them differing according to the size of the shot. They 
must be at a distance of at least three times the 
diameter of the shot from each other, as otherwise it 
might happen that two or more drops of lead would, 
while falling down, unite to one mass, which, of course, 
would be useless and have to be remelted. 

The water serving for the reception of the drops most 
be frequently changed to prevent it from becoming too 
hot or boiling. By some it is recommended to pour a 
layer of oil upon the surface of the water, the shot re- 
taining thereby its spherical shape better than when 
dropping directly into the water. To prevent the shot, 
when taken from the water, from losing its metallic ap- 
pearance by oxidation, a small quantity (about 0.25 per 
cent.) of sodium sulphide is dissolved in the water 
serving for the reception of the shot, by means of which 
the drops falling into it arc at once coated with a thin 



292 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

film of sulphide of lead of a lustrous, metallic, gray- 
black color, which is permanent even in moist air. 

In more recent times the formation of shot by cen- 
trifugal power has been introduced, which does away 
with the expensive towers. The melted lead is poured 
in a thin stream upon a rapidly revolving metal disk, 
surrounded at some distance by a screen against which 
the shot is thrown. The moment the melted lead falls 
upon the metal disk it is divided by the centrifugal 
force into drops, the size of which depends on the rapid- 
ity with which the disk revolves. The drops are hurled 
in a tangential direction from the disk and are stopped 
by the above-mentioned screen. 

David Smith, of New York, has invented and put into 
practice a new mode of manufacturing drop-shot. The 
chief feature of this invention consists in causing the 
fused metal to fall through an ascending current of air, 
which shall travel at such a velocity that the dropping 
metal shall come in contact with more particles of air in 
a short tower than it would in falling through the high- 
est towers before in use. Fig. 11 is a vertical sectional 
elevation of a sheet-metal cylinder set up as a tower 
within a building, and may be about 20 inches internal 
diameter and 50 feet high or less. This tower, although 
mentioned in Smith's patent, is now dispensed with in 
the middle of the height, so that only an open space re- 
mains. Fig. 12 is a plan at the line a b ; Fig. 13 is a 
plan at the line q r; Fig. 14 is a section at op; and 
Fig. 15 is a section at m n, Fig. 11. 

C is a water cistern beneath the tower. B is a pipe 
from the blowing apparatus leading into the annular 



LEAD ALLOYS. 



293 



chamber/; the upper surface g is perforated as shown in 
Fig. 13 to dispense the ascending air. The outer side 




of this annular ring / forms the base of a frustum of a 
cone, forming the tower D, passing the blast through 
the frame y y, Fig. 14 ; and in Fig. 11 is shown to snp- 

25* 



294 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



port a cylindrical standard R, the upper central portion 
of which receives the pouring pan A. This pan is 
charged with each separate size of shot. Round the 
pouring pan A is a circular waste-trough z. The object 



Fig. 14. 





of this arrangement is that the fluid-metal, running 
through the pouring pan A into the ascending current 
of air, will be operated upon in the same manner as if 
it fell through stagnant air of great height. The shot 
falls through the open centre of the ring / into the 
water cistern C, where a shoat t carries it into the tub S, 
which when full may be removed through x, an aperture 
in the cover of the cistern. 

Sorting the shot. — Even with the most careful work 
it happens that drops of unequal size or cornered masses 
are found among the shot, and the latter, after being 
taken from the water and dried, must be sorted. This 
was formerly effected by hand in the following manner : 
A slab of polished iron is tilted at a certain angle, and 
the shot are strewed along the upper part of the inclined 
plane thus formed. The perfect shot proceed rapidly 



LEAD ALLOYS. 295 

• 

in straight lines and fall into a bin placed to receive 
them, about a foot away from the bottom of the slab. 
The misshapen shot, on the contrary, travel with a 
slower zigzag motion and fall without any bound into 
a bin placed immediately at the end of the incline. 
The perfect shot are then subjected to another sorting 
by passing them through sieves with meshes of exactly 
the same size as the apertures in the casting colanders. 

The finished shot, which are now of dead silvery- 
white color, are polished and made dark in an iron bar- 
rel or rumble containing a quantity of powdered plum- 
bago. They are then tied up in canvas bags ' and are 
ready for sale. 

At present the shot are, however, generally sorted by 
means of sorting drums consisting of inclined cylinders 
perforated with holes whose diameter corresponds to 
that of the shot. The forward motion of the shot in 
these drums is effected by means of an Archimedes 
screw. 

Large shot are at the present time also frequently 
prepared by casting in moulds like bullets, or by stamp- 
ing them from thin plates of the alloy. In both cases 
the resulting shot shows a seam which is removed by 
bringing the shot together with very fine quartz sand 
into revolving drums. By the action of the sand the 
seams are ground off, and a perfectly spherical shape 
imparted to the shot. 

Alloys of lead and iron. — Lead, as previously stated, 
has no affinity for iron. A piece of lead thrown into 
a bath of melted iron becomes oxidized, or is separated 
and found at the bottom of the bath after the cast-iron 



296 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

has been run out. As soon as the lead is introduced 
into the melted cast-iron, a certain agitation appears on 
the surface, and even through the whole bath, and the 
cast-iron seems more fluid. When thin or large pieces 
are to be cast, the founders, who are aware of this phe- 
nomenon, often throw a certain quantity of lead into the 
melted cast-iron in order to prevent it from congealing 
too soon against the sides of the casting ladle. 

This want of affinity of lead for iron, and conversely, 
is made use of for separating iron from other metals, 
such as silver, for instance. Thus, if lead is added in 
sufficient quantity to a fused alloy of cast-iron and sil- 
ver, it will combine with the silver, and the iron will 
float on the surface of the bath. 

All the authors who have occupied themselves with 
the question of alloys agree upon the impossibility of 
alloying lead and iron. 

Alloys of lead and other metals.— Lead, as seen from 
the preceding sections, is much used in the preparation 
of alloys which have been already partially mentioned 
under the respective mixtures of metals. Lead is also 
frequently alloyed with cadmium and bismuth, and 
forms an important constituent of the so-called soft- 
solder. In speaking of these compounds, the lead 
alloys not yet mentioned will be referred to. Only 
type-metal and shot-metal can be considered as lead 
alloys, i. 'e., alloys of which lead forms the greater por- 
tion. 



CADMIUM ALLOYS. 297 

XXXI. 

CADMIUM ALLOYS. 

Cadmium shares with bismuth the property of 
strongly reducing the melting points of alloys, there 
being some whose melting point is so low that they can 
be liquefied in hot water. But while the bismuth alloys 
are nearly all brittle, many alloys of cadmium possess 
considerable ductility, and can be worked under the 
hammer as well as between rolls. They act, 'however, 
very differently in this respect, there being alloys which 
are very ductile, and others again, though containing 
besides cadmium the same metals only in different pro- 
portions, which are very brittle. 

An alloy consisting, for instance, of cadmium and 
silver shows this phenomenon in the most remarkable 
manner. By melting together one part of cadmium 
and one to two parts of silver a very ductile alloy is 
obtained which can be rolled out to a very thin sheet. 
By taking, however, two parts of cadmium to one of 
silver, the resulting alloy is so brittle as to break into 
pieces under the hammer. 

As cadmium imparts to the alloys a very low melt- 
ing point, it is frequently used in the preparation of 
very fusible solders, for casting articles not to be ex- 
posed to a high temperature, and, in dentistry, for com- 
pounds for filling hollow teeth. 

Alloys of cadmium contain generally tin, lead, bis- 
muth, and sometimes mercury, the latter being chiefly 



298 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

added to lower the melting point still more. Alloys of 
cadmium and mercury alone (cadmium amalgams) are 
solid and malleable, hence the addition of mercury does 
not impair their solidity. 

Lipowitz's alloy. — This alloy is composed of cadmium 
3 parts, tin 4, bismuth 15, lead 8. It is best prepared 
by heating the comminuted metals in a crucible and 
stirring, as soon as fusion begins, with a stick of hard 
wood. This stirring is of importance in order to pre- 
vent the metals, whose specific gravity varies con- 
siderably, from depositing themselves in layers. This 
alloy softens at 140° F., and melts completely at 158° F, 

Lipowitz's metal has a silvery-white color, a lustre 
like polished silver, and can be bent short, hammered, 
and turned. It, therefore, possesses properties adapting 
it for many purposes where a beautiful appearance is of 
special importance, but on account of the considerable 
content of cadmium and bismuth, the alloy is rather ex- 
pensive and finds but limited application. Castings of 
small animals, insects, lizards, etc. have been prepared 
with it, which in regard to sharpness were equal to the 
best galvano-plastic products. Plaster of Paris is poured 
over the animal to be cast, and after sharply drying the 
whole the animal is withdrawn from the mould and the 
latter filled up with Lipowitz's metal. The mould is 
then placed in a vessel containing water, and by heating 
the latter to the boiling point the metal is melted and 
deposits itself in the finest impressions of the mould. 

The alloy is very suitable for soldering tin, lead, Bri- 
tannia metal, etc., and on account of its silver-white 
color is especially adapted for soldering Britannia metal 



CADMIUM ALLOYS. 299 

and nickel. But the costliness of the alloy prevents its 
general use for this purpose, and cheaper alloys having 
nearly the same properties as Lipowitz's metal have 
been prepared. 

Cadmium alloy [melting point 170° F.). — Cadmium 2 
parts, tin 3, lead 11, bismuth 16. 

Cadmium alloy {melting point 167° F.).- — Cadmium 10 
parts, tin 3, lead 8, bismuth 8. 

Cadmium alloys {melting point 203° F.). — The follow- 
ing compositions have all the same melting point 
(203° F.). 

Parts. 

L II. IIL 

Cadmium .... 1 1 1 

Tin . 2 3 1 

Bismuth 3 5 2 

Very fusible alloy.- — An alloy with a melting point of 
1 50° F. is composed of : — 

Parts. 

Tin . 1 or 4 

Lead 2 " 3 

Bismuth 4 " 15 

Cadmium . . . . . 1 u 3 

Wood's alloy or metal melts between 140° and 161.5° 
F. It is composed of lead 4 parts, tin 2, bismuth 5 to 
8, cadmium 1 to 2. In color it resembles platinum and 
is malleable to a certain extent. 

Cadmium alloy {melting point 179.5° F.). — Cadmium 
1 part, lead 6, bismuth 7. This alloy, like the preced- 
ing, can be used for soldering in hot water. 



300 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Cadmium alloy (melting point 300° F.). — Cadmium 2 
parts, tiu 4, lead 2. This alloy yields an excellent soft 
solder, with a melting point about 86°, below that con- 
sisting of lead and tin alone. 

Cliche metal. — An alloy consisting of lead 50 parts, 
tin 36, and cadmium 22J, is especially adapted for the 
preparation of cliches, since with as low a melting 
point as the cliche metals (of bismuth alloys) generally 
used, it combines the valuable property of greater hard- 
ness. With a cliche from this alloy a large number of 
sharp impressions are obtained. 

According to Hauer's researches, given below, the 
melting points of fusible alloys are relative to the com- 
position : — 

Atomic weights. Melting points. 
Cd^PbBi 155.1CF. 

Cd 2 Sn 2 Pb 2 Bi 2 155.1 

Cd 3 Sn 4 Pb 4 Bi 4 153.5 

Cd i Sn 5 Pb 5 Bi 5 150.0 

Mixing proportion. 

lCdOPbTBi 190.4 

lCd2Bi'3Pb 193.0 

2Cd4Bi7Pb 203.0 

The alloys of cadmium with mercury (cadmium 
amalgam) will be discussed in speaking of the amalgams, 
and those containing gold, which are used by gold- 
workers for certain purposes, will be referred to under 
gold alloys. 

It has been stated that cadmium alloys are not reli- 
able in regard to their melting points, and that, on ac- 
count of the volatility of cadmium, the alloy becomes 



BISMUTH ALLOYS. 301 

the more difficult to fuse the oftener it is renielted. A 
glance at the above figures shows plainly that cadmium 
cannot volatilize at those temperatures, and, further, a 
series of experiments made especially for the purpose 
has shown that the respective alloys can be renielted as 
often as desired without their melting points undergoing 
any sensible change. It may, however, happen that the 
originally homogeneous alloy may liquate into several 
with differently high melting points if a large quantity 
be allowed to stand in a melted state for a long time. 
This evil can, however, be readily prevented by not 
keeping the alloy in a fluid state until this liquation 
takes place (it requires many hours), and if it does take 
place by vigorous stirring of the melted alloy. 



XXXIL 

BISMUTH ALLOYS. 

Like cadmium bismuth possesses the property of 
lowering the melting points of metals, and is, therefore, 
frequently used in the preparation of fusible alloys, 
which would be still more extensively used than at 
present if bismuth could be obtained in abundance and 
at a small cost. The alloys are now chiefly used in the 
preparation of delicate cliches, very fusible solders, and 
in the manufacture of safety-valves of a peculiar con- 
struction for steam boilers. 

The behavior of bismuth towards other useful metals 
is given by Guettier as follows : — 
2fi" 



302 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Alloys of bismuth and copper. — These alloys are easily 
effected notwithstanding the difference in the points of 
fusion of the two metals. They are brittle and of a 
pale-red color whatever the proportions employed. 
Their specific gravity is sensibly equal to the average of 
the two metals. 

Alloys of bismuth and zinc. — These alloys are seldom 
made and produce a metal more brittle, presenting a 
larger crystallization with less adherence than zinc or 
bismuth taken singly. On that account they are useless 
in the arts. 

Alloys of bismuth and tin. — The. combinations of bis- 
muth, and tin take place easily and in all proportions. 
A very small quantity of bismuth imparts to tin more 
hardness, sonorousness, lustre, and fusibility. On that 
account and for certain applications a little bismuth is 
added to tin to increase its hardness. However, bis- 
muth being easily oxidized and often containing arsenic, 
the alloys of tin and bismuth would be dangerous for 
the manufacture of domestic utensils such as culinary 
vessels, pots, etc. 

The alloys of tin and bismuth are more fusible than 
each of the metals taken separately. An alloy of equal 
parts of the two metals is fusible between 212° to 302° 
F. When tin is alloyed with as little as 5 per cent, of 
bismuth, its oxide acquires the peculiar yellowish-gray 
color of the bismuth oxide. According to Rudberg, 
melted bismuth begins to solidify at 507° F., and tin at 
550° F. For the alloys of the two metals the " con- 
stant point" is 289° F. 



BISMUTH ALLOYS. 303 

Alloys of bismuth and lead. — These two metals are 
immediately alloyed by simple fusion with merely the 
ordinary precautions. The alloys are malleable and 
ductile as long as the proportion of bismuth does not 
exceed that of lead. Their fracture is lamellar, and 
their specific gravity greater than the mean specific 
gravity of either metal taken singly. An alloy of equal 
parts of bismuth and lead has a specific gravity equal 
to 10.71. It is white, lustrous, sensibly harder than 
lead, and more malleable. The ductility and mallea- 
bility diminish with an increased proportion of bismuth, 
while they increase with the excess of lead in the alloy. 
An alloy of bismuth 1 part, and lead 2 is very ductile, 
and may be laminated into thin sheets without cracks. 
According to Berthier, its point of fusion is 331° F. 

Alloys of bismuth and iron. — Authorities disagree as 
to the possibility of combining bismuth and iron. The 
presence of bismuth in iron renders the metal brittle. 

It will be seen, from the preceding data, that the 
alloys of bismuth are not at present of importance in 
the arts excepting the fusible alloys made of bismuth 
and certain white metals, such as tin, lead, etc., and a 
few others. 

Alloys of bismuth with antimony. — The alloys of these 
two metals alone are grayish, brittle, and lamellar. In 
order to remove the brittleness varying quantities of tin 
and lead are added, whereby their fusibility rather in- 
creases than decreases. Alloys containing the above 
metals are much used in the preparation of Britannia 
and Queen's metal, but they are also employed for some 
special purposes of which the following are examples : — 



304 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Cliche metal. — This alloy is composed of tin 48 
parts, lead 32J, bismuth 9, and antimony 10.5. It is 
especially suitable for dabbing rollers for printing cot- 
ton goods, and, possessing a considerable degree of hard- 
ness, it wears well. 

For filling out defective places in metallic castings, the 
following alloy can be used to advantage: bismuth 1 
part, antimony 3, lead 8. 

Alloys of bismuth, tin, and lead. — The compounds 
obtained by alloying these metals have a somewhat 
higher melting point than the cadmium alloys. They 
have, however, been known for a long time, and are used 
for various purposes. 

Newton's metal consists of bismuth 8 parts, lead 5, tin 
3. It melts at 202° F. 

Hose's alloys consist of: — 

I. II. 

Bismuth 2 8 1 ^ 

Tin .1 3 } 55 

Lead 1 8 j F 

The first of these alloys melts at 200.75° F., and the 
other at 174.2° F. These alloys were formerly used in 
the preparation of the so-called safety-plates which were 
inserted in the top of steam boilers. The composition 
of these plates was such that they became fluid at a 
determined temperature corresponding to a certain steam 
pressure in the interior of the boiler, thus giving the 
steam a chance to escape through the aperture formed. 
Such plates acted as a sort of safety-valve, and were in- 
tended to prevent the explosion of the boiler with too 
high a tension of the steam. 



BISMUTH ALLOYS. 



305 



At the present time their use has, however, been 
almost entirely abandoned, it having been found that 
boilers provided with these plates would explode, with- 
out a previous melting of the plates. A chemical and 
physical examination has shown that, by long-continued 
heating of the plates, alloys are formed whose melting 
points are much higher than those of the compositions 
originally used. The following table gives the compo- 
sitions of some alloys which are said to melt, if the pres- 
sure of the steam exceeds that indicated : — 









Melting point. 


Corresponding 


Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


Degrees F. 


pressure of steam 
in atmospheres. 


8 


5 


3 


21 20 


1 


8 


8 


4 


235.9 


H 


8 


8 


8 


253.9 


2 


8 


10 


8 


266 


2£ 


8 


12 


8 


270.3 


3 


8 


16 


14 


289.5 


H 


8 


16 


12 


300.6 


4 


8 


22 


24 


308.8 


5 


8 


32 


36 


320.3 


6 


8 


32 


28 


331.7 


7 


8 


30 


24 


341.6 


8 



Onion's fusible alloy consists of lead 3 parts, tin 2, 
bismuth 5. It melts at 197° F. 

Darcefs fusible alloys. Mr. Darcet gives the follow- 
ing proportions for fusible alloys : — 



26* 



306 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 





Parts. 


i 


No. 








Eemarks, 




Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


i 


1 


7 


2 


4 


Softens at 212° F., without melting. 


2 


8 


2 


6 


Softens at 212° F., easily oxidized. 


3 


8 


2 


4 


1 Softens more or less at 212° F. No. 


4 


16 


4 


7 


>■ 4 becoming softer than either No. 


5 


9 


2 


4 


) 3 or No. 5. 


6 


16 


5 


7 


Becomes nearly fluid at 212° F. 


7 


8 


3 


4 


Becomes quite liquid at 212° F. 


8 


8 


4 


4 


Becomes very liquid at 212° F. [melt. 


9 


8 


7 


1 


Becomes soft at 212° F., but does not 


10 


16 


15 


1 


Neither liquid nor soft at 212° F. 


11 


8 





3 


Melts at 205O F. 


12 


8 


6 


2 


Melts at 205O F. 


13 


16 


9 


7 


Becomes very liquid at 212° F. 



These alloys are generally harsh, but may be cut. 
Their fracture is a dead blackish-gray. They are 
rapidly tarnished in the air, and more so in boiling 
water in which they become covered with a wrinkled 
pellicle which falls as a black powder. 

Bismuth alloys for delicate castings. — For the prepa- 
ration of castings of delicate articles, and taking impres- 
sions from dies, medals, etc., bismuth alloys of the fol- 
lowing compositions have been recommended : — 

Parts. 



Bismuth 
Tin . 
Lead . 



I. II. III. IV. 

6 5 2 8 

3 2 13 

13 3 1 5 



On cooling, these 'alloys expand strongly, and, conse- 
quently, fill out the finest depressions and elevations. 

Bismuth alloy for cementing glass. — Most cements in 
use are dissolved by petroleum, or, at least, softened. 



BISMUTH ALLOYS. 



307 



The following alloy, which melts at 212° F., is, how- 
ever, not attacked by petroleum, and is therefore well 
adapted for fastening the metal parts upon glass lamps : 
Lead 3 parts, tin 2, bismuth 2.5. 

The following table, made by Messrs. Parkes and 
Martin, indicates the various points of fusion of the 
fusible combinations of bismuth, lead, and tin : — 





Parts. 




Tempera- 
ture of 
fusion. 




Parts. 




Tempera- 
ture of 














fusion. 


Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


Degrees F. 


Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tiu. 


Degrees F. 


8 


5 


3 


202O 


8 


16 


24 


' 316Q 


8 


6 


3 


208 


8 


18 


24 


312 


8 


8 


3 


226 


8 


20 


24 


310 


8 


8 


4 


236 


8 


22 


24 


308 


8 


8 


6 


243 


8 


24 


24 


310 


8 


8 


• 8 


254 


8 


26 


24 


320 


8 


10 


8 


26Q 


8 


28 


24 


330 


8 


12 


8 


270 


8 


30 


24 


342 


8 


16 


" 8 


300 


8 


32 


24 


352 


8 


16 


10 


304 


8 


32 


28 


332 


8 


16 


12 


294 


8 


32 


30 


328 


8 


16 


14 


290 


8 


32 


32 


320 


8 


16 


16 


292 


8 


32 


34 


318 


8 


16 


18 


298 


8 


32 


36 


320 


8 


16 


20 


304 


8 


32 


38 


322 


8 


16 


22 


312 


8 


32 


40 


324 



These alloys are valuable baths for tempering small 
steel tools. They give a very exact temperature, which 
may be adjusted to the purpose intended. They are 
used, according to Thurston,* by placing the article on 
the surface of the unmelted alloy and gradually heating 
until fusion occurs and they fall below the surface, at 



* Brasses, Bronzes, and other Alloys, p. 196. 



308 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

which moment their temperature is right ; they are then 
removed and quickly cooled in water. It is not easy, 
even if possible at all, to give as uniform a temperature 
by the ordinary processes . of heating or to obtain the 
exact heat desired, and the quality of the tool is not so 
easy of adjustment by any other method. 

Alloys of lead and bismuth have also been tried. They 
are too easily oxidized and are difficult to make on ac- 
count of the separation of the lead. An alloy of equal 
parts of bismuth and lead possesses a tenacity from 
fifteen to twenty times that of lead. 

Alloys of bismuth and tin succeed better ; those which 
are best known are — 



Bismuth. 


Tin. 


Melts at about 


50 parts 


50 parts 


. 310O F. 


33 " 


67 " . 


. 325 


10 " 


80 " . 


. 480 



The first alloy (equal parts bismuth and tin) is called 
"cutlanego," of which the oxide makes a white enamel. 

New fusible alloy. — "La Nation" gives the formula 
for a new alloy which is suitable for many applications 
in the arts. It melts at about 158° F., and, conse- 
quently, at a much lower temperature than that at which 
the so-called "magic spoon' 7 melts in a cup of hot tea. 
It is composed of bismuth 48 parts, cadmium 13, lead 
19, tin 26. The alloy resists great pressure. 

Bismuth-bronze. — Webster's bismuth-bronze is made 
of various proportions. According to the statement of 
its discoverer its composition and qualities are as follows : 
For a hard alloy take 1 part of bismuth and 16 of tin, 
both by weight, and, having melted them, mix them 



SILVER ALLOYS. 309 

thoroughly. For a hard bismuth-bronze take 69 parts 
of copper, 21 of spelter, 9 of nickel, and 1 of the above 
hard alloy of bismuth and tin. This bismuth-bronze is 
a hard, tough, sonorous, metallic alloy, which is proposed 
for use in the manufacture of screw propeller blades, 
shafts, tubes, and other appliances employed partially or 
constantly in sea- water. In consequence of its tough- 
ness it is thought to be well suited for telegraph 
wires and similar purposes where much stress is borne 
by the wires. From its sonorous quality it is well 
adapted for piano wires. For domestic utensils and ar- 
ticles exposed to atmospheric influences use bismuth 1 
part, aluminium 1, and tin 15, melted together to form 
the separate or preliminary alloy, which is added in the 
proportion of 1 per cent, to the above-described alloy 
of copper, spelter, and nickel. This bronze forms a 
bright and hard alloy suited for the manufacture of 
utensils or articles exposed to oxidation. 



XXXIII. 

SILVER ALLOYS. 

Pure silver possesses but little hardness, and articles 
manufactured from it w r ould wear off considerably. For 
this reason silver- ware is never made of the pure article, 
but always of alloys with other metals, excepting certain 
chemical utensils which must be of pure silver, as alloys 
would be attacked by the substances to be manipulated 
in them. 



310 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The alloys of silver present a real interest only when 
they are made with gold, copper, or aluminium. With 
the other metals, with very few exceptions, they are of 
no use in the arts. The alloys of silver and gold and 
silver and copper are those employed for articles of lux- 
ury and for coinage. The alloys of silver, gold, and 
copper are used for the same purpose. An alloy of sil- 
ver, copper, and tin is made into a solder for plated-ware 
and false jewelry. In modern times alloys containing 
silver and nickel, or silver, nickel, and zinc, are much 
used for table utensils, they having a beautiful white 
appearance and being much cheaper than alloys of cop- 
per and silver, which were formerly exclusively used for 
the purpose. 

Alloys of silver and aluminium. — These alloys have 
previously been briefly referred to. Aluminium and 
silver form beautiful white alloys considerably harder 
than pure aluminium and taking a very high polish. 
These alloys have the advantage over copper alloys of 
being unchangeable on exposure to the air and retaining 
their white color. It has, therefore, been proposed to 
alloy coins with aluminium instead of with copper, which 
would render them much more durable, but the results 
of experiments made on a large scale were not satis- 
factory. 

The alloys of aluminium and silver show very vary- 
ing physical properties according to the content of alum- 
inium. An alloy consisting of 100 parts of aluminium 
and 5 of silver differs but little from pure aluminium, - 
but is considerably harder and takes a beautiful polish. 
An alloy of aluminium 169 parts and silver 5 possesses 



SILVER ALLOYS. 311 

considerable elasticity, and is recommended for fine 
watch springs and dessert knives. An alloy of equal 
parts of aluminium and silver shows a hardness equal 
to that of bronze. 

Tiers-argent {one-third silver). — This alloy is chiefly 
prepared in Paris factories for the manufacture of 
various utensils, and as indicated by its name consists 
of silver 33.33 parts and aluminium 6Q.66. The ad- 
vantages of this alloy over silver consist in the lower 
price (90 francs per kilogramme) and greater hardness ; 
it is also stamped and engraved with greater ease than 
the alloys of copper and silver. 

Alloys of silver and zinc. — Silver and zinc have great 
affinity for each other, and consequently are readily 
alloyed. The alloys are prepared by throwing the re- 
quired quantity of zinc previously wrapped in paper 
into the melted and strong! v-heatcd silver, stirring; thor- 
oughly with an iron rod and pouring the fused mass at 
once into moulds. Alloys of silver and zinc can be ob- 
tained both ductile and flexible. An alloy consisting of 
zinc 2 parts and silver 1 has nearly the color of pure 
silver and is quite ductile. With a larger proportion of 
zinc it becomes, however, brittle. In preparing the 
alloy a small quantity of zinc volatilizes, and hence 
somewhat more has to be taken than the finished pro- 
duct is to contain. 

Alloys of silver and zinc have many valuable prop- 
erties, especially that of retaining their white color and 
being more fusible than alloys of silver with copper. 
It has therefore been proposed to use them for coinage 
and especially for small coins. Comparative experi- 



312 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

merits have, however, shown that for coins it is best to 
use alloys which besides silver and zinc contain copper, 
the following composition being especially recommended 
for the purpose : Silver 835 parts, copper 93, zinc 72. 

The alloy is readily rolled into a sheet of suitable 
thickness, and should it become brittle its ductility can 
be restored by annealing. 

Alloys of silver, copper, and nickel. — Nickel by itself 
makes silver very hard and brittle, such alloys being 
difficult to work into utensils. But by adding some 
copper the alloys can be cast, rolled, and fused, and the 
articles manufactured from them are harder than those 
from silver and copper alloys. Alloys of silver, nickel, 
and copper are much used by French manufacturers 
for articles formerly prepared from standard silver. 
These compositions may be considered as an argentan 
whose properties have been improved by a content of 
silver. 

Argent-Ruolz.~ -The articles manufactured by Ruolz, 
of Paris, from the so-called Ruolz silver, or argent fran- 
cais, have the appearance of pure silver, but are much 
cheaper and harder. According to the quality of the 
articles, different alloys are used, a few such compositions 
being given as follows :— 

Parts. 





I. 


11. 


III. 


Silver 


. 33 


40 


20 


Copper 


. 37 to 42 


30 to 40 


45 to 


Nickel 


. 25 to 30 


20 to 30 


25 to 



C. D. Abel, of London, has patented in England sev- 
eral alloys containing silver and nickel. They are 



SILVER ALLOYS. 



313 



divided into two classes, the first consisting of alloys of 
silver, copper, and nickel, with or without an addition 
of manganese. The alloys of this class can be com- 
posed according to the following proportions : — 





Per cent. 




A. 


B. 


C 


Silver . . 
Nickel 
Copper . 


33 

25 to 30 

37 to 42 


40 

20 to 30 

30 to 40 


20 

25 to 35 

45 to 55 



The second group of these alloys consists of silver, 
copper, nickel, and zinc, with or without manganese, 
and is composed of the following proportions : — 





Parts. 




D. 


E. 


F. 


Silver .... 


333 


340 


400 


Copper .... 


418 


420 


446 


Zinc .... 


163 


160 


108 


Nickel .... 


86 


80 


46 



Of the above-mentioned alloys A, D, and E are es- 
pecially intended for rolled, pressed, or drawn silver ar- 
ticles, C for casting, and F for jewelry. The content of 
silver in these alloys varies from 20 to 40 per cent., ac- 
cording to the purposes for which they are to be used — 
the proportion of nickel being the less, the greater that 
of silver. 

For the alloys of the first group the patentee uses the 
27 



314 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

purest copper found in commerce and purified nickel, 
the purification of the latter being effected in the fol- 
lowing manner : The ordinary impure nickel of com- 
merce is dissolved in nitric acid or in dilute sulphuric 
acid, the solution in the latter case being promoted by 
connecting the nickel with the positive pole of a gal- 
vanic battery. The solution is treated with chlorine and 
the ferric oxide precipitated by boiling with calcium 
carbonate. The solution is subsequently precipitated 
with soda, the precipitate re-dissolved in hydrochloric 
acid, the solution diluted with a large quantity of water, 
saturated with chlorine, and then treated with barium 
carbonate and allowed to cool. From the fluid separated 
from the precipitate the nickel is subsequently precipi- 
tated by the galvanic method and then reduced. 

Mckel-speiss can be treated by the dry method by 
melting 100 parts of it with 20 of saltpetre and 100 of 
feldspar, whereby the cobalt forms a blue glass. The 
residue is roasted, washed, and dissolved in sulphuric 
acid, the resulting fluid being treated in the same 
manner as above. But no matter how the nickel may 
have been purified, it is of advantage before preparing 
the alloys to remelt it in a crucible together with yellow 
or red prussiate of potash, 50 parts of yellow or 25 to 
30 of red prussiate of potash being used for 1000 parts 
of nickel. Frequently this method alone suffices for 
the purification of the commercial nickel, which by 
these means is obtained in well-fluxed, homogeneous 
pieces of any desired size. 

The nickel purified in the above or any other manner 
is melted with the copper and an addition of charcoal 



SILVEK ALLOYS. 315 

and yellow, or, better, red prussiate of potash, which, 
when used as flux, is claimed to impart special proper- 
ties to the alloys. In preparing an alloy which is to 
contain the highest content of silver and the smallest of 
copper, it is of advantage to add some manganese to pre- 
vent oxidation as much as possible, since the addition of 
nickel, if exceeded above a certain proportion, would 
impair the quality of the alloy. For this purpose suf- 
ficient oxide of manganese previously glowed with char- 
coal in a closed crucible is added to the mixture of cop- 
per and nickel before melting, so that a preliminary 
alloy, consisting of 80 to 90 parts of copper and, nickel 
and 10 to 20 parts of manganese, is obtained — borax, red 
or yellow prussiate of potash, and charcoal, being used 
as flux. The manganese readily combines with the cop- 
per and the nickel and silver form with them a ductile 
alloy readily worked. 

For the preparation of the alloys D, E, and F, the 
patentee employs the purest commercial copper and zinc 
and nickel purified by one of the methods above de- 
scribed. He first melts the copper and zinc together in 
the right proportions and adds to the alloy thus obtained 
the nickel by remelting, using the above-mentioned flux- 
ing agents. For an alloy with a large percentage of sil- 
ver, manganese is added in the same manner as above 
described. 

The preliminary alloys thus obtained are subsequently 
melted together with the necessary quantity of silver, 
either yellow or red prussiate of potash, charcoal or 
borax, together with phosphorus, being added. For the 
production of an alloy of phosphorus and copper the 



316 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

use of copper phosphide deserves the preference. Its 
content of phosphorus being previously determined by 
an analysis, it is added to the argentiferous alloy in such 
a quantity that the content of phosphorus of the latter 
amounts to J to 2 per cent. The phosphide of copper 
is best prepared by heating 8 parts of comminuted cop- 
per with 1 part of a mixture of 40 parts of charcoal 
and 27 of super-phosphate of lime. The final silver 
alloys can also be at once fused with this mixture of 
charcoal and super-phosphate of lime previously heated 
to a slight red heat, using 1000 parts of the alloy to 100 
of the mixture. By this process the content of phos- 
phorus in the alloys will be the greater the longer the 
heating has been continued. The introduction of phos- 
phorus makes the alloys more fusible and more homo- 
geneous, and at the same time imparts to them a white 
color. To retain these advantages and to restore to the 
alloy its ductility lost by the addition of phosphorus, 
the latter is almost entirely removed, after homogeneous 
ingots have been obtained, by heating the alloy with 
charcoal powder in a closed crucible for several hours. 

Alloys of silver, copper, nickel, and zinc. — These alloys 
have been used for the preparation of small coins, espe- 
cially in Switzerland. The coins while wearing well, 
however, soon lose their original beautiful white color 
and acquire a disagreeable yellowish shade resembling 
the color of poor brass. For coinage these alloys have 
the further disadvantage of the silver contained in them, 
being only regained by a very tedious process. 

Moussei's silver alloy. — Copper 59.06 parts, silver 



SILVER ALLOYS. 



317 



27.56, zinc 9.57, nickel 3.42. Color, yellowish with a 
reddish tinge, but white upon the fractured surface. 

Alloys for Swiss fractional coins. 



Silver 
Copper 
Nickel 
Zinc . 



20 centimes. 


10 centimes. 


5 centimes. 


Parts. 


Parts. 


Parts. 


15 


10 


5 


50 


55 


- 60 


25 


25 


25 


10 


10 


10 



I. 


II. 


III. 


33.3 


34 


40 


41.8 


42 


44.6 


8.6 


8 


4.6 


16.3 


18 


10.8 



The argent-Ruoz sometimes contains also certain quan- 
tities of zinc. The following alloys can be rolled into 
sheet or drawn out into wire : — 

Parts. 



Silver . 
Copper 
Nickel 
Zinc 



Alloys of silver and arsenic. — These alloys may be 
formed by direct fusion, and the silver will retain a cer- 
tain proportion of arsenic even when the temperature is 
very high. The compound made of 86 parts of silver 
to 14 of arsenic is of a dead grayish- white color, brittle, 
and acquires a metallic lustre by friction. It is very 
fusible. An alloy composed of silver 49 parts, copper 
49, and arsenic 2, is very ductile and has a beautiful 
white color. It was formerly used for the manufacture 
of table-ware, for which it is, however, not suitable on 
account of the poisonous properties of the arsenic. 

27* 



318 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Alloys of silver, copper, and cadmium. — Cadmium im- 
parts to silver alloys groat flexibility and ductility with- 
out impairing their white color. Some of the more im- 
portant alloys of this group are composed of— 





Parts. 




I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


vir. 


Silver . . . 
Copper . . . 
Cadmium . . 


980 

15 

5 


950 
15 
35 


900 

18 

82 


860 

20 

180 


666 

25 

309 


667 

50 

284 


500 

50 

450 



In preparing these alloys the great volatility of cad- 
mium must be taken into consideration. The silver and 
copper are, as a rule, first alloyed ; the cadmium wrapped 
in paper is then brought into the fused mass, the whole 
quickly stirred and at once poured into moulds. By this 
mode of procedure volatilization of cadmium is best 
prevented. 

Silver is also used in the preparation of other alloys, 
especially in connection with platinum, which will be 
referred to later on. No true alloys of silver and iron 
have been made, only more or less intimate mixtures, 
where silver appears in the shape of drops or filaments. 
The alloys of silver with cobalt and chromium are 
generally very hard and brittle and thus far have found 
no application in the industries. 

Alloys of silver and copper. — These alloys are more 
used than any other compounds of silver, aud in most 
countries form the legal composition of coins and silver- 
ware. Silver and copper are easily alloyed in all pro- 



SILVER ALLOYS. 311) 

portions, the combination taking place with expan- 
sion and its specific gravity being less than that calcu- 
lated from the proportions of the component metals. 
The copper imparts to silver greater hardness, strength, 
and tenacity, the alloys acquiring at the same time a 
beautiful sound. The presence of copper does not 
modify the color of silver so long as the proportion of 
copper does not exceed 40 to 50 per cent. ; a greater pro- 
portion imparts to the alloy a yellowish tint similar to 
that of brass, and if the compound contains from 65 to 
70 per cent, of copper the color is reddish, approaching 
that of pure copper. 

The alloys of copper and silver, though easily affected 
by the ordinary process of fusion, are, nevertheless, sub- 
ject to the defect of separation, or " liquation" which 
necessitates certain precautions when running the metal 
into moulds. When such an alloy is run into a cold 
ingot mould, the centre of the ingot is at a lower degree 
of fineness than the portion nearer the mould ; and even 
in the monetary alloys all the portions are not of the 
same degree of fineness. 

Formerly the silver used for coinage frequently con- 
tained small quantities of gold, and for this reason 
nearly all the older coins are treated in the mints by the 
wet method to regain the gold. 

At the present time the fineness of all coins is deter- 
mined by thousandths, the standard varying according 
to the size of the coins, and the laws of the different 
countries, from -f^W to T VoV In the following table 
the composition of the silver coins of various countries 
is given : — 



320 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Country. 


Coins. 


Fineness. 


Austria . . 


Pieces of 3 and 2 guldens 


900 


Belgium . . 


5 franc-piece ..... 


897 


<< 


2 " " • 


835 


Brazil . . 


Milreis, pieces of 500 and 200 reis 


916 


Denmark 


Dobbelt rigsdaler, rigsdaler, halvdaler 


875 


(< 


Mark (g- rigsdaler) .... 


500 


East Indies 


Pieces of 1, ^, \, ^ rupees 


916.66 


Egypt . . 


Pieces of 20, 10, and 5 piastres . 


833* 


< i 


Pieces of 1 piastre .... 


755 


a 


Pieces of ^ and \ piastre 


750 


France . . 


Pieces of 5, 2, and 1 franc, and 50 and 






20 centimes ..... 


835 


Germany 


Mark piece ...... 


900 


Great Britain 


Crown, half-crown, and shilling . 


925 


Greece . . 


Pieces of 5, 1, ^, and | drachme . 


900 


Holland . . 


Pieces of 2\, l,"and \ gulden 


945 


Italy ... 


Pieces of 5, 2, 1, ^, and \ lira 


835 


Mexico . . 


Peso (average by U. S. Mint assay) 


901 


(< 


Peso of Maximilian (average by U. S. 






Mint assay) ..... 


902i 


Norway . . 


Pieces of 1, J, ^, -^ specie daler . 


875" 


Portugal . . 


Pieces of 500 reis (by U. S. Mint assay) 


912 


Prussia . . 


Tbaler pieces ..... 


900 


" . . 


Old Thalers before 1857 


750 


Russia . . 


Pieces of 1, |, and \ ruble . 


768.5 


a 


Pieces of ^, j 1 ^, and -^ ruble 


750 


Spain . . 


Dollar of 5 pesetas .... 


900 


<( 


Peseta (present, by U. S. Mint assay) 


835 


Sweden . . 


Riksdaler, crown, and ^ riksdaler 


750 


Switzerland 


Pieces of 2, 1, and ^ francs . 


800 


Turkey . . 


Pieces of 20, 10, 5, and 2 piastres 


830 


United States 


Half dollar, quarter dollar, dime, half 






dime, and three cent piece 


900 



The fineness of silver used in the manufacture of sil- 
ver-ware varies from j 7 -^- to r Vo"°o"? as shown by the 
following table : — 



SILVER ALLOYS. 




Countries. 


Fineness. 


Prussia, Saxony, Brunswick 


. 780 


Austria, Bavaria .... 


. 812 


England 


. 925 


France, Italy, Belgium 


f 950 

I 800 



321 



Silver alloyed with copper in the preceding propor- 
tions has, in the form of wire or sheet, a hardness equal 
to that of cold-forged copper. By continued mechani- 
cal manipulation the hardness increases, however, and 
may be made equal to that of wrought-iron. Silver is 
also sometimes used for casting small articles of art, but 
it is difficult to obtain castings entirely free froin blow- 
holes. This evil can, however, be readily prevented by 
adding to the alloy a small quantity of zinc, about 1 per 
cent. The resulting castings will be homogeneous, and 
free from blow-holes, while the ductility of the alloy is 
not in the least impaired by such a small percent- 
age of zinc. 

In consequence of the frequent annealing required in 
working articles of silver, they gradually acquire a 
steel-gray color which is due to the oxidation of copper. 
Hence the finished articles must be subjected to a special 
manipulation called "blanching." This is effected by 
boiling the articles in a fluid consisting of 40 parts of 
water and one part of sulphuric acid. The oxide of 
copper readily dissolves in the mixture, leaving the sur- 
face of the article coated with a layer of chemically pure 
silver. 

Gray silver {Japanese silver). — In Japan an alloy of 
equal parts of silver and copper is prepared which ac- 
quires a beautiful gray color by boiling in a solution of 



322 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

alum to which sulphate of copper and verdigris are 
added. The so-called " niokum," an alloy also intro- 
duced from Japan, is prepared by placing thin plates of 
gold, silver, copper, and of the above alloy upon each 
other, and stretching under the hammer. The cross 
sections of the resulting thin plates show the colors of 
the various metals, and have a peculiar striped appear- 
ance. Mokum is chiefly used for decorations upon gold 
and silver articles. 

Imitation silver alloys. — There is a large number of 
imitation silver alloys which are used as substitutes for 
many purposes. In the following a few of them together 
with their properties are given : — 

Warned metal. — Tin 10 parts, nickel 7, .bismuth 7, 
cobalt 3. White, fine-grained, quite difficult to fuse. 

Minargent. — This alloy, which has a very beautiful 
white color, is composed of copper 1000 parts, nickel 
700, tungsten 50, aluminium 10. 

A beautiful white alloy closely resembling silver is man- 
ufactured in Paris, which, according to an analysis by 
Prof. Rochleder, of the Prague University, is composed 
of copper 69.8 parts, nickel 19.8, zinc 5.5, and cad- 
mium 4.7. 

Delalot's alloy. — This white, silver-like alloy is claimed 
to possess properties adapting it as a substitute for sev- 
eral alloys now in use. It consists of 80 parts of pure 
copper, 2 of manganese, 18 of zinc, and 1 of phosphate 
of lime. First melt the copper, then add gradually the 
manganese, and when this is thoroughly dissolved the 
phosphate of lime. Remove the scoria and about ter 
minutes before casting add the zinc. To promote the 



SILVER ALLOYS. 323 

fusion of the manganese | part of calcium fluoride, J 
part of borax, and 1 part of charcoal may be added. 

Tournu-LeonarcVs alloy. — This alloy, which closely 
resembles silver, is prepared in the following manner : 
200 parts of fine tin are introduced into a crucible 
heated to a red heat. When the metal is melted add 64 
parts of bell-metal, previously comminuted to the size 
of lentils. Add only small portions at one time, and 
stir the mixture with an iron rod to effect the solution 
as quickly as possible. Finally add 300 parts more of 
tin, stir thoroughly, and pour the alloy into moulds 
of copper or sand. By the content of copper in the 
bell-metal, the tin is sufficiently hardened to allow of 
the alloy being worked into table-ware, plates for print- 
ing music, and even into jewelry. 

ClarMs 'patent alloy consists of shot-copper 1 ounce, 
nickel 3 clwts. 18 grains, spelter 1 dwt. 22 grains, tin 
12 grains, cobalt 12 grains. 

Pirsch-Baudoiri' *s alloy. — This alloy resembling silver 
is composed of copper 71 parts, nickel 16.5, cobalt (in 
the form of oxide) 1.75, tin 2.5, and zinc 7. Some 
aluminium (about J per cent.) may also be added. Pre- 
pare first an alloy of all the nickel, an equal quantity of 
the copper and the zinc ; then melt this alloy together with 
the iron, the remainder of the copper, the cobalt, and some 
charcoal powder under a surface covering of charcoal 
powder in a graphite crucible at a strong heat. Allow 
the melted mass to cool and then add the zinc, previously 
alloyed with copper, at a temperature just sufficient for 
its fusion. Now take the crucible from the fire, stir the 
contents with a wooden stick, add the tin previously 



324 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

wrapped in paper, stir the mass once more, and pour 
out into moulds. But a small quantity of zinc remains 
in the alloy, the greater portion of it volatilizing during 
fusion. 



XXXIV. 

GOLD ALLOYS. 

Gold has been known and used by every nation, 
both uncivilized and civilized, from the earliest period 
down to our time. It is found among the old Egyptian 
monuments, and semi-barbarous nations have used it in 
the form of dust as the principal medium of exchange. 
When America was discovered by Columbus gold was 
well known to its inhabitants ; the Chinese have used it 
from time immemorial ; the Medes and Persians were 
remarkable, even more than other Asiatics, for their love 
of gold ; jewels of costly description were employed to 
indicate the rank of the wearer, and this custom is still 
continued in the East at the present time. To show the 
sacred value the Egyptians in ancient times placed on 
gold, it was represented by a circle with a dot in the 
middle, this circle amongst that nation being the symbol 
of divinity and perfection. 

Gold is one of the metals which most readily enter 
into combination with other metals. But this property 
is without importance when we consider the inutility of 
the majority of the compounds and the necessity of not 
debasing its value or impairing its properties. More- 



GOLD ALLOYS. 325 

over, it is certain that excepting its alloys with copper, 
silver, iron, and platinum, the latter two being without 
actual utility, gold loses part of its ductility, resistance, 
and cohesion, when it is combined with other metals 
such as zinc, tin, lead, etc. Therefore, it is entirely use- 
less to experiment on those alloys where gold loses not 
only a part of its money value but also those valuable 
properties which participated in making it a noble metal. 

The principal alloys of gold used at the present time 
are those with copper or silver, or, in rare cases, with 
both these metals. 

Gold and copper have great mutual affinity and may 
be alloyed in all proportions. The alloys are harder 
and more fusible than gold alone. Copper diminishes 
the ductility of gold when it enters into the combination 
in a proportion over 10 to 12 per cent. The specific 
gravity of an alloy of gold and copper is less than the 
average of the two metals. The color of the alloy 
varies between dark yellow and red, according to the 
quantity of copper.' Pure copper must be used in the 
preparation of the alloys, as the impure metal alters the 
malleability of gold and may render it brittle. 

Gold and silver may be easily mixed together, but do 
not appear to form true combinations. These compounds 
are more fusible than gold and are generally greenish- 
white, more ductile, harder, more sonorous and elastic 
than gold or silver considered singly. One-twentieth of 
silver is sufficient to modify the color of gold. Silver, 
like copper, increases the firmness of gold, and on that 
account it is employed at various degrees of fineness for 

28 



326 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

jewelry work. These alloys are known by jewellers 
under the names of yellow gold, green gold, and pale gold, 
according to the proportion of silver. 

As previously mentioned the alloys of gold with other 
metals are of no practical utility and need only be briefly 
referred to. Gold alloyed with iron forms pale gray 
masses, brittle and somewhat magnetic. An alloy hold- 
ing -J- of iron is employed in jewelry under the name of 
gray gold. 

Lead shows a peculiar behavior towards gold. Both 
metals are very soft and ductile, but when alloyed they 
form an exceedingly brittle metal of a pale yellow color, 
strongly crystalline, and hard as glass. According to 
Berth ier, one-half of one-thousandth of lead alloyed to 
gold is sufficient to render the latter metal entirely 
brittle and without ductility. 

Arsenic or antimony alloyecl with gold gives a brittle, 
very crystalline, alloy of a white or gray color. Acci- 
dental admixtures of arsenic or antimony can, however, 
be removed in a simple manner, it being only necessary 
to keep the metal in a melted state for some time, 
whereby the arsenic and antimony volatilize, the pure 
gold remaining behind. 

Alloys of gold and palladium. — Alloys of gold, copper, 
silver, and palladium have a brownish -red color and 
are as hard as iron. They are sometimes used for bear- 
ings of the arbors in fine watches, as they cause but little 
friction (less than the jewels used for the same purpose) 
and never rust on exposure to the air. The composition 
used in the Swiss and English watch factories consists of 
gold 18 parts, copper 13, silver 11, palladium 6. 



PREPAKATION OF GOLD ALLOYS. 327 

Alloy of aluminium and gold. — This alloy, which is 
also known as Nilrnberg gold, is frequently used in the 
manufacture of cheap gold-ware, it being well adapted 
for the purpose as its color exactly resembles that of 
pure gold and remains unchanged in the air. The com-, 
position of most articles of Niirnberg gold is according 
to the following proportions : Copper 90 parts, gold 2.5, 
aluminium 7.5. 

An addition of cadmium to an alloy of gold and sil- 
ver imparts to it a beautiful green color ; these alloys 
will be referred to in speaking of colored gold. 



XXXV. 

PREPARATION OF GOLD ALLOYS. 

The preparation of alloys varies according to the pur- 
pose for which they are to be used, this difference being 
especially apparent in the moulds employed for casting. 
The manufacturers of gold articles rarely use moulds for 
shaping the articles excepting such as have considerable 
thickness, as seal-rings, medals with especially high 
relief, etc. The casting of such articles is generally 
effected in moulds of very .fine sand or finely pulverized 
and elutriated cuttle-fish. 

For coinage the gold is always cast into ingots or bars, 
iron moulds being generally used for the purpose. The 
bars are either rolled out to sheet or drawn into wire, 
the larger part of jewelry being also manufactured from 
such sheet or wire. The shape of the iron moulds used 



328 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

for casting varies according to the shape the ingot is to 
have ; for ingots to be drawn out into wire it is best to 
use cylindrical tubes open on top and closed on the lower 
end by an iron plug. The gold contracting strongly in 
solidifying can be removed from the tubes without 
difficulty. 

Ingots to be used for the preparation of gold plates 
are best cast in the form of four-sided prisms, casting 
ladles with a corresponding bowl being used for the 
purpose. For casting very thin plates upright ladles 
covered with a level plate are also used. 

The melting of the metals constituting the alloys is 
always effected in graphite crucibles, the gold being in 
all cases first melted, and as it does not oxidize even at 
a red heat a protecting cover is not required. The gold 
being entirely melted, it is heated as strongly as the fur- 
nace will permit, and the other metals previously con- 
verted into small pieces are then introduced. On ac- 
count of the great density of gold as compared with 
that of the other metals, the mixture of the metals is 
promoted by stirring with an iron rod sharpened on the 
point and made previously red hot. The crucible is 
then quickly withdrawm and its contents poured into a 
suitable ingot mould, previously warmed and greased to 
prevent adhesion. The warming of the mould is quite 
indispensable, but if made too hot the metal on being 
turned into it will spit and fly about, and besides incur- 
ring great loss of gold dangerous results might thereby 
happen to the person in charge. The same remark ap- 
plies when the ingot mould is cold. It is hot enough 



PREPARATION OF GOLD ALLOYS. 



329 



when it will just stand touching with the hand for a 
second or so. 

The melting point of gold being very high, the fur- 
nace used should have a good draught. In some mints 



Fig. 16. 




which alloy daily large quantities of gold and silver, fur- 
naces heated by gas are used. 

The furnace used by most manufacturers of gold- 



28* 



330 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ware is, however, the wind-furnace, one admirably 
suited for the purpose being shown in Fig. 16. The 
crucible and fuel are introduced through an oblique iron 
door lined inside with fire-clay. These furnaces can 
also be used for the preparation of granulated gold, fre- 
quently used by gold-workers in the manufacture of 
jewelry. For this purpose thin sheet gold or wire is 
cut with scissors into small pieces, which are enveloped 
in charcoal dust in a graphite crucible and heated in the 
furnace. The pieces of gold melt to small balls of cor- 
responding dimensions, which, after being freed from 
adhering foreign bodies by washing, are separated into 
sizes by passing through a sieve. 

When it is desired to produce very tough gold use as 
flux a tablespoon ful of charcoal and one of sal ammo- 
niac, adding it to the gold just before melting ; the sal 
ammoniac burns away while toughening the gold. The 
employment of the mixture of sal ammoniac will bring 
the ingots of gold up bright and clear ; it will also pre- 
vent them from splitting or cracking when rolled and in 
subsequent working. 

In rernelting scrap-gold from the work-shop and old 
gold, care should be taken that they are not too much 
contaminated by solder and free from organic matter, 
wax, etc. The solder used in soldering goldware con- 
tains tin, lead, bismuth, and sometimes zinc, and the 
presence of these metals has an injurious effect upon the 
ductility of the gold. It is recommended to separate 
much contaminated gold from the foreign metals by the 
wet process, and alloy the resulting chemically pure 
gold. 



PREPARATION OF GOLD ALLOYS. 



331 



In most countries there are legally fixed standards for 
gold alloys. Generally such alloys are considered as 
consisting of so many carats to the unit, the pound, or 
half pound being divided into 24 carats, each of which 
contains 12 grains. What is termed 18 carat gold is a 
unit of 24 carats of alloy containing 18 carats gold and 
6 of copper. Since the introduction of the decimal 
system in many countries the fineness of gold alloys has 
been determined by thousandths, the fineness of the 
alloys being officially expressed in this manner. Not- 
withstanding the simplicity of the system, many manu- 
facturers still hold to the old method and calculate ac- 
cording to carats and grains. To save calculation the 
conversion of carats and grains into thousandths is given 
in the following table : — 



1 grain = 






3.47 


2 " 






6.95 


3 " 






10.42 


4 " 






13.89 


5 " 






17.36 


6 " 






20.84 


7 " 






24.31 


8 " 






27.78 


9 " 






31.25 


10 " 






34.73 


11 " 






38.19 


12 " • 






41.67 


1 carat = 






41.667 


2 " 






83.334 


3 " 






125.001 


4 " 






166.667 


5 " 






208.333 


6 " 






250.000 



7 carats = 

8 " 

9 " 

10 " 

11 " 

12 " 

13 " 

14 " 

15 " 

16 " 

17 " 

18 " 

19 " 

20 " 

21 " 

22 " 

23 " 

24 " 



291.666 
333.333 
374.999 
416.667 
458.630 
500.000 
541.667 
5S3.333 
624.555 
666.667 
707.333 
750.000 
791.666 
833.333 
874.999 
916.666 
9^8.333 
1000.000 



332 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

XXXVI. 

USE OF GOLD ALLOYS. 

Gold alloys are principally used for coinage and or- 
namental articles. They are further employed in the 
manufacture of genuine gold-leaf, in the preparation of 
genuine Leonis wires (which consist of silver coated 
with gold), and in filling teeth. 

Standard gold. — The alloy used at present in all 
countries for gold coins consists of gold and copper. 
Many coins contain a small quantity of silver, but this 
is due to a contamination of the copper with this metal, 
many copper ores containing silver, but in such small 
quantities that the separation of the two metals would 
not j>ay. As coins are subjected to considerable wear 
through frequently passing from hand to hand, the 
amount of loss occasioned thereby is worthy of some 
little consideration. Of course, this amount will be in 
proportion to the length of time the coins have been in 
circulation. To provide against this the English gov- 
ernment allows a sovereign to be a legal tender till it is 
reduced not below 122.5 grains, the difference between 
this and the full standard weight of 123.147 grains 
being the remedy allowed by English law for abrasion 
or loss by wear. The depreciation of a coin depends 
upon its hardness, wearing much more when soft, and 
also upon the rapidity of circulation. In most coun- 
tries the fineness of gold coins is fixed by law, and 
though, as will be seen from the following table, the 



USE OF GOLD ALLOYS. 



333 



differences are slight, commerce would be greatly facil- 
itated if all countries would adopt a universal standard 
of fineness. 



Ducats, Hungarian 


. 


989 thousandths 


" Austrian .... 


986 


a 


" Dutch . 


982 


a 


English sovereigns . 


916 


It 


Prussian Friedrichsd'or . 


902 


a 


German gold coins 








Austrian crowns 








French gold coins 








Belgian 








Italian 
Swiss 


. 


900 


it 


Spanish 








Greek 








United States 








Chinese 








Older German gold c 


joins (pistoles) . 


895 


a 



In the manufacture of jewelry alloys of gold with 
copper, or with silver, or with both metals are used. 
The alloy with copper alone is termed red, while if sil- 
ver is used it is termed white, and if both metals are al- 
loyed with gold the caratation is termed mixed. In most 
countries there are legally fixed standards for gold 
jewelry. In England 16, 18, and 22 carat gold is 
stamped, or, as it is termed Hall marked, in France 18, 
20, and 22 carat, in Germany 8, 14, and 18 carat, and, 
also, under the term joujou gold, a 6 carat gold used for 
jewelry to be electro-gilt. Though this is intended as a 
protection to the buyer, the price of the articles does not 
depend alone on the quantity of gold used, but to a great 
extent on the labor expended on its production, and, there- 
fore, these legal regulations are, in many cases, illusive. 



334 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS, 



111 the following table the gold alloys legally fixed by 
the various governments are given, but we would remark 
that for certain ornamental articles distinguished by their 
color some deviation, though within certain limits, is 
permitted : — 





Parts. 




Fineness. 








Color. 




Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 




583 


14 


6 


4 


yellow. 


583 


14 


3 


7 


dark yellow. 


583 


14 


1 


9 


very red. 


666 


16 


4.66 


3.33 


yellow. 


66Q 


16 


1.60 


6.40 


red. 


750 


18 


3.50 


2.50 


yellow. 


750 


18 


2.50 


3.50 


red. 



Gold alloys which can be legally used in various 
countries. 





Fineness. 


England ...... 


. 750 


France ^ highest standard 


. 920 


Belgium V second " . 


. 840 


Italy J third " . . 


. 750 


Austria, No. I. . 


. 326 


No. II 


. 545 


" No. Ill 


. 767 


Pforzheim gold-ivare 






Fineness. 


Ordinary ware (joujou) . 


. 130 to 250 


Finer quality .... 


. 563 


Finest quality .... 


. 583 to 750 


Gold. 


Silver. Copper. 


Parts. 


Parts. Parts. 


Elastic gold alloy (spring gold) 2.66 


2.66 5.33 


Japanese blue gold (Shakdo) 1 to 10 


— 90 to 99 



USE OF GOLD ALLOYS. 



335 



The last-mentioned alloy has the property of acquir- 
ing a permanent color, shading from dark blue into 
black. 

The following table shows the proportions of various 
metals incorporated in the gold alloys used by jewelers : — 





Parts. 


Carats. 










Copper. 


Silver. 


Gold. 


23 


2 


l 

2 


23 


22 








1 


1 


22- 


20 








2 


■ 2 


20 


18 








3 


3 


}S 


15 








6 


3 


15 


13 








8 


3 


13 


12 








8£ 


H 


12 


10 








10 


4 


]0 


9 








m 


4| 


9 


8 








i°± 


H 


8 


7 








9 


8 


7 



Colored gold. — As previously remarked the color of 
gold alloys varies according to the proportions of copper 
or silver used. Manufacturers of jewelry and other 
gold-ware make extensive use of the various colors of 
alloys, one article being frequently composed of several 
pieces of different colors. The appended table gives the 
composition of the alloys most frequently used, with 
their specific colors : — 



336 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Parts. 














Color. 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 


Steel. 


Cadmium. 




2 to 6 


1.0 


, 


__ 





green. 


75.0 


16.6 


— 


— 


8.4 


it 


74.6 


11.4 


9.7 


— 


4.3 


a 


75.0 


12.5 


— 


— 


12.5 


it 


1.0 


2.0 


„, 


— 


__ 


pale yellow. 


4.0 


3.0 


1.0 


— 


— 


dark yellow. 


14.7 


7.0 


6.0 


— 


— 


i i 


14.7 


9.0 


4.0 


— 


— 


a 


3.0 


1.0 


1.0 


— 


— 


pale red. 


10.0 


1.0 


4.0 


— 


— 


it 


1.0 


. — 


1.0 


— 


— 


dark red. 


1.0 


— 


2.0 


— 


— 


a 


30.0 


3.0 


— 


2.0 


— 


gray. 


4.0 


_ 


— 


1.0 


— 


it 


29.0 


11.0 


— 


— 


— 


a 


lto3 


— 


— 


1 


— 


blue. 



The alloys containing cadmium, given in the above 
table, are malleable and ductile and can be used for 
plating. To prepare them the constituent parts must be 
carefully melted together in a covered crucible lined with 
coal dust. The resulting alloy is then remelted with 
charcoal or powdered resin and borax in a graphite cru- 
cible. If, notwithstanding these precautions, a con- 
siderable portion of the cadmium volatilizes the alloy 
must be again remelted with an excess of cadmium to 
bring it up to the required percentage. 

In modern times certain alloys of gold are also pre- 
pared by the galvanic process, and articles showing vari- 
ous colors are now manufactured by this method. It is 
generally done by immersing the article of gold in a di- 
luted bath of chloride of gold in which is a plate of 
silver connected with the positive pole of a battery: 



ALLOYS OF PLATINUM, ETC. 337 

silver separates upon the gold, a certain alloy being formed 
which is used as a basis for further coloring. When the 
desired color has made its appearance the plate of silver 
is replaced by one of colored gold, whose color corre- 
sponds to the shade the article is to have. 

In many factories it is customary to color the finished 
gold articles, i. e., to impart to them, by treatment with 
agents capable of dissolving copper, a color approaching 
that of chemically pure gold. By this operation the 
alloy of gold and copper is decomposed on the surface 
of the article, the copper being dissolved out. By allow- 
ing the surface of the article to remain in contact with 
the bath for some time the copper is entirely dissolved, 
a layer of pure gold with its characteristic color remain- 
ing behind. By allowing the bath to act for a shorter 
time only a portion of the copper is dissolved, and, by 
skilful manipulation, the various shades between red 
and yellow can be imparted to the articles. 



XXXVII. 

ALLOYS OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 

Platinum alloys readily with all metals. Many of 
these alloys possess properties making them extremely 
useful for certain purposes and they are frequently used 
in the manufacture of artificial teeth, measuring scales, 
and articles subject to especially strong mechanical action. 
(Alloys of platinum and iridium are used for cylinders 
in which the touch-hole of cannon is to be bored.) Pure 
29 



338 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

platinum, as well as its alloys, with iridium and palla- 
dium, being indifferent to most chemical agents is 
much used in the manufacture of standard weights and 
scales. The so-called platinum vessels used in the labora- 
tories of chemists, in manufactories of sulphuric acid 
and other chemical products, consist generally of plati- 
num alloyed with one of its allied metals. 

The platinum occurring in nature is never pure, but 
generally contains a number of other metals, those most 
frequently associated with it being silver, gold, iron, 
palladium, osmium, iridium, ruthenium, rhodium, fur- 
ther small quantities of nickel, cobalt, etc. The enu- 
meration of these metals occurring in combination with 
platinum explains why the latter metal combines so 
readily with others, the native platinum occurring in 
nature being actually not such in the true sense of the 
word, but a platinum alloy. 

The platinum melting only at a very high tempera- 
ture, a furnace of peculiar construction heated with oxy- 
hydrogen gas is required for the preparation of the 
alloys. The melting point of the latter is, however, 
frequently so low as to allow of their being melted in 
ordinary furnaces. In the following we will briefly de- 
scribe a platinum furnace exhibited by the French gov- 
ernment at the last Paris Exhibition, which is used for 
melting the platinum required in the manufacture of 
standard meters. 

This furnace, or, more correctly, melting apparatus, 
consists of an oblong bowl of lime with a cavity capable 
of holding 440 pounds of melted platinum. Upon this 
bowl a lid of lime can be lowered by means of a lever 



ALLOYS OF PLATINUM, ETC. 83.9 

mechanism. In this lid are so-called Daniell's cocks, 
used for ordinary oxy-hydrogen blow-pipes. The pro- 
ducts of combustion escape through apertures in the 
periphery of the bowl. The oxy-hydrogen gas used in 
this apparatus does not consist of oxygen and hydrogen, 
but of oxygen and illuminating gas. 

For the preparation of platinum alloys on a small scale 
an apparatus resembling the above in its main features 
may be used. A bowl holding several pounds of plati- 
num can be fashioned from chalk over a wooden mould, 
and is, before use, converted into caustic lime by heat- 
ing to a white heat. An ordinary oxy-hydrogen, blow- 
pipe is used, the compressed oxygen and hydrogen being 
contained in strong vessels, or in bags of strong canvas 
made gas-proof by several coats of caoutchouc varnish. 
In preparing alloys of platinum with base metals in 
such a bowl, it must be taken into consideration that the 
latter are at once oxidized by the smallest excess of 
oxygen, and hence care must be had to set the cocks of 
the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe so that the flame receives a 
small excess of hydrogen. In preparing the alloys the 
quantity of platinum required is first brought into flux, 
and then the other metals are added all at once through 
an aperture in the lid of the bowl which otherwise is 
closed with a lime-plate. 

Immediately after the introduction of the metals into 
the fused platinum, the flame can be modified or in 
some cases entirely extinguished, the alloys having, as a 
rule, a much lower melting point than that of platinum. 
The melted alloy is cast in ingots or cylindrical bars 
in moulds of lime. The ingots are especially adapted 



340 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

for rolling out into sheet, while the bars are more suit- 
able for wire. 

Alloys of platinum and iridium.— Pure platinum is a 
very soft metal, being scarcely harder than gold. The 
solidity of platinum articles found in commerce is nearly 
always due to the presence of a certain quantity of 
iridium, and for the manufacture of vessels alloys of the 
two metals are used. They are much harder and more 
tenacious than pure platinum and more capable of re- 
sisting chemical agents, an alloy of 90 parts of platinum 
and 10 of iridium not being attacked even by nitro- 
muriatic acid. Vessels prepared from this alloy when 
used become very lightly coated with pure iridium, and 
are then indifferent to mechanical and most chemical in- 
fluences. On account of their great ductility these alloys 
can be rolled out cold to a very thin sheet and drawn to 
very fine wire. 

The other alloys of platinum with platinum metals 
have found no technical application up to the present 
time, though the alloy with palladium could certainly 
be advantageously used for many purposes on account 
of its strength and ductility. Among the alloys of 
platinum with other precious metals there are several 
which are used to some extent in various branches of the 
metal industry, and they are prepared either by them- 
selves (platinum with gold, or platinum with silver) or 
with addition of tin, nickel, copper, etc. 

Alloys of platinum and gold. — The two metals may be 
alloyed in all proportions, but on account of the refrac- 
tory nature of the platinum the combination takes place 
only at a very high temperature. A very small quan- 



ALLOYS OF PLATINUM, ETC. 341 

tity of platinum suffices to change the properties of gold 
to a considerable extent. With a very small percentage 
the color becomes sensibly lighter than that of pure 
gold, and the alloys show a high degree of elasticity, 
which they nearly lose, however, if the content of plati- 
num exceeds 20 per cent. The melting point of the 
alloys is very high, and those with 70 per cent, platinum 
can be fused only in the flame of oxy-hydrogen gas. 
The application of alloys of platinum and gold is 
limited ; one containing from 5 to 10 per cent, of plati- 
num is used in the form of sheet and wire in the manu- 
facture of artificial teeth. 

Alloys of platinum and silver. — By. an addition of 
platinum the hardness of silver is increased and its pure 
white color changed to gray, an alloy containing but a 
few per cent, of platinum showing a much darker color 
than pure silver. Alloys with 17 to 35 per cent, of 
platinum are prepared and known as platine au titre. 
Their use is limited, they being chiefly employed in den- 
tistry. The alloys are difficult to produce on account 
of the separation of the platinum, which is due to its 
superior specific gravity. 

Alloys of platinum, gold, silver, and palladium. — The 
alloys composed of these metals are especially prepared 
for dental purposes, and the compositions of those found 
in commerce vary very much. They are best prepared 
with the assistance of oxyhydrogen gas, though it is 
possible to fuse them in an ordinary furnace. The 
readily fusible metals are first melted, and after increas- 
ing the fire as much as possible the platinum metals are 

29* 



342 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

added. In the following the compositions of a few of 
these alloys are given : — 

Platinor. — The alloy known under this name in com- 
merce has a beautiful golden-yellow color (hence its 
name) without containing any gold. It consists of 
varying quantities of platinum, silver, copper, zinc, and 
nickel, the variations in the percentage of copper and 
zinc being very likely due to the fact that the two 
metals are not used directly, but in the form of brass. 
The use of the latter has the advantage of making the 
alloy more homogeneous and preventing, to some extent, 
the loss of zinc. An alloy with a color closely resem- 
bling that of pure gold and quite constant in the air 
may be made as follows : Melt 1 part of silver with 5 
of copper, add to the melted mass 2 parts of brass, then 
1 of nickel, and, after raising the temperature to the 
highest point the furnace is capable of producing, 2 
parts of platinum, which is best used in the form of a 
very fine powder, the so-called platinum-black. 

Platinum-brcmze. — This alloy deserves attention, it 
possessing properties not to be found to the same extent 
in other alloys, and besides it is not very expensive. 
Platinum-bronzes are indifferent to the action of air and 
water, and, once polished, retain their bright lustre for 
a long time. Up to the present time they have only 
been used for tableware and articles of luxury, and 
occasionally, on account of their sonorousness, for bells. 
Besides tin, platinum-bronze always contains platinum 
and some compositions, a certain quantity of silver, 
which, however, can be replaced by a corresponding 
quantity of brass, without impairing the resistance 



ALLOYS OF PLATINUM, ETC. 



343 



against atmospheric influences. The following table 
gives the composition of some varieties of platinum- 
bronze : — 





Parts. 


Uses. 














Nickel. 


Platinum. 


Tin. 


Silver. 


Brass. 


For table utensils . . . 


100 


1 


10 


_ 


_ 


" bells 


100 


1 


20 


2 


— 


11 articles of luxury 


100 


0.5 


15 


— 


— 


" tubes for spy-glasses 


100 


20 


20 


— 


— 


" ornaments .... 


60 


10 


— 


— 


120 



Alloys of platinum with the base metals. — Among the. 
alloys of platinum with the base metals only those with 
copper and iron are of importance. The other metals 
also form alloys with platinum, which, however, are not 
suitable for technical purposes. The alloys with iron 
are also of secondary interest, since platinum-iron and 
platinum-steel have not found the general application 
in the industries which was at one time prophesied by 
many. It may, however, be said that a certain addition 
of platinum imparts to steel many excellent properties, 
an alloy consisting of 1 part of platinum and 70 of 
steel being, for instance, on account of its great hard- 
ness, very suitable for the manufacture of cutting tools. 
For knives with especially sharp edges, an alloy con- 
taining only one-half per cent, of platinum is claimed 
to be the most suitable. 

With pure iron platinum forms a steel-gray mass 
very difficult to fuse, and so hard as to be scarcely 
scratched by the best file. Berthier has tried alloys 



344 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

made of 1 part of platinum with from 4 to 10 parts of 
iron. The fracture of the alloy was gray and granular, 
and it was possible to flatten the metal with a hammer 
before breaking it. 

Alloys of platinum and copper.— These alloys possess- 
ing with great ductility and tenacity a very beautiful 
color, can be advantageously used for some technical 
purposes, The color of the copper is modified by the 
presence of a comparatively small quantity of platinum, 
copper containing but 4 per cent, of it showing a rose 
color, which, in the presence of more platinum, soon 
changes to golden-yellow. 

The alloys of copper with platinum are very ductile, 
malleable, and easily worked. By adding zinc a mix- 
ture of metals is obtained which, as regards color and 
durability of lustre, is equal to gold, and, for this 
reason, is used in the manufacture of ornaments. The 
properties of the alloys vary very much according to 
the quantity of metals they contain, and, hence, they 
are adapted for many technical purposes. 

Golden-yellow alloys of platinum and copper. — Alloys 
so composed that their color approaches that of pure 
gold are suitable for the manufacture of jewelry and 
other ornaments, and as regards the price of the metals 
can be prepared for about twice the cost of silver. With 
an equally beautiful color they surpass gold, on account 
of their much lower price, and, especially, their dura- 
bility. 

The composition of the alloys used in the manufac- 
ture of ornaments varies within very wide limits. The 
following are, however, the most important : — 



ALLOYS OF PLATINUM, ETC. 345 

Parts. 





I. 


II. 


III. 


IV 


Platinum 


. 2 


20 


7 


3 


Copper . 


. 5 


— 


16 


13 


Zinc 


. — 


■ — 


1 




Silver . 


. 1 


20 


— 




Brass 


. 2 


240 


— 




Nickel . 


. 1 


120 


— 





The alloy No. IV., which is known as Cooper's gold, 
is especially adapted for ornamental articles, it having a 
color which cannot be distinguished from that of 18 
carat gold, even by a close comparison. It can be 
drawn out to the finest wire, and rolled out to very thin 
sheet. 

Other alloys suitable for ornaments, on account of 
their gold-like appearance, are composed of — 

Parts. 





I. 


IT. 


III. 


IV. 


Platinum 


. 15 


16 


7 


6 


Copper . 


. 10 


7 


16 


26 


Zinc 


. 1 


1 


1 


— 



The success in preparing these alloys depends, how- 
ever, on using metals entirely free from iron, experi- 
ments having shown that the T oVo part of the weight 
of the alloy of iron suffices to render it sensibly brittle. 
If any of the constituent metals contains iron, the alloy, 
though showing a beautiful color, will be too hard, and 
besides so brittle as to make it impossible to draw it out 
into fine wire or roll it out to thin sheet. 

Cooper has thoroughly examined the properties of 
platinum alloys, and to his researches we are indebted 



346 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

for some important compositions which he has termed 
mirror-metal and pen-metal, they being especially 
suitable for these purposes. 

Cooper's mirror-metal— -Copper 35 parts, platinum 6, 
zinc 2, tin 16.5, arsenic 1. This alloy being entirely in- 
different to the action of the weather, and taking a beau- 
tiful polish on account of its hardness, is especially 
adapted for the manufacture of mirrors for optical in- 
struments. 

Cooper's pert-metal. — The preceding alloy is also very 
suitable for the manufacture of pens, but is too expensive 
to compete successfully with steel. An alloy frequently 
used for the preparation of pen-metal consists of: Cop- 
per 1 or 12 parts, platinum 4 or 50, silver 3 or 36. 

Their great hardness and resistance against atmo- 
spheric influences make Cooper's pen alloys very suitable 
for the manufacture of mathematical and other instru- 
ments of precision. It can, for instance, scarcely be cal- 
culated how long a chronometer, whose train of wheels 
is constructed of such an alloy, can run before it shows 
any irregularity attributable to wear. 

Palladium alloys. — Palladium occurs associated with 
platinum and is obtained as a by-product in refining 
platinum. Pure palladium is but little used. It is 
sometimes employed in the preparation of mirrors by 
the galvanic process or of semicircular protractors for 
fine mathematical instruments. The pure metal is, how- 
ever, more frequently used in the preparation of alloys 
which are chiefly employed in dentistry and in the manu- 
facture of fine watches. The most important of these 



ALLOYS OF PLATINUM, ETC. 347 

alloys are the silver alloys and the so-called palladium 
bearing-metal. 

Alloys of palladium and silver. — This alloy, which is 
almost exclusively used for dental purposes, consists of 
9 parts of palladium and 1 part of silver. It does not 
oxidize, and is, therefore, very suitable for plates for ar- 
tificial teeth. The following alloy is still more fre- 
quently used : Platinum 10 parts, palladium 8, gold 6. 

Palladium bearing-metal. — This alloy is uncommonly 
hard, and is said to produce less friction upon arbors of 
hard steel than the bearings of jewels generally used for 
fine watches. The alloy has the following composition : 
Palladium 24 parts, gold 72, silver 44, copper 92. 

The alloys of the other platinum metals are but little 
used, especially on account of their rarity and costliness. 
The alloys of platinum and iridium are only used for 
special scientific purposes, for instance, for standard 
scales, etc. Iridium as well as rhodium possesses the 
property of imparting great hardness to steel, but the 
rhodium and iridium steel found in commerce contain, 
in many cases, not a trace of either. The alloy of 
iridium with osmium is distinguished by great hardness 
and resistance, and has, therefore, been recommended for 
pivots, for fine instruments, and points for ships' com- 
passes. 

Phosphor-iridium. — For preparing larger pieces of 
iridium than found in nature for making points for the 
Mackinnon stylographic pen, Mr. John Holland, of Cin- 
cinnati, has devised the following ingenious process: 
The ore is heated in a Hessian crucible to a white heat, 
and, after adding phosphorus, the heating is continued 



348 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

for a few minutes. In this manner a perfect fusion of 
the metal is obtained, which can be poured out and cast 
into any desired shape. The material is about as hard 
as the natural grains of iridium, and, in fact, seems to 
have all the properties of the metal itself. 

Phosphor-iridium, as this metal may be called, pos- 
sesses some very remarkable properties. It is as hard, 
if not harder, than iridosmine, from which it is pre- 
pared. It is somewhat lighter, owing to its percentage 
of phosphorus and increase of volume. It is homo- 
geneous and easy to polish and forms some alloys im- 
possible to prepare in any other manner. It combines 
with small quantities of silver and forms with it the 
most flexible and resisting alloy of silver. With gold 
or tin no alloy has thus far been obtained. Added in 
small quantities to copper it furnishes a metal possessing 
very small resistance to friction and is especially adapted 
for articles subjected to great pressure. This alloy seems 
to possess more than any other metal the power of re- 
taining lubricants. With iron, nickel, cobalt, and pla- 
tinum phosphor-iridium forms combinations in all pro- 
portions which are of great importance. With iron an 
alloy is obtained which retains the properties of phos- 
phor-iridium, although its hardness decreases with a 
larger addition of iron. The alloy is slightly magnetic, 
and is not attacked by acids and alkalies, and the best 
file produces no effect upon it even if it contains as much 
as 50 per cent, of iron. With more than 50 per cent, 
of iron the power of resistance decreases gradually, and 
the nature of the metal approaches that of iron. 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY, ETC. 349 



XXXVIII. 

ALLOYS OF MERCURY AND OTHER METALS OR 
AMALGAMS. 

Mercury, as is well known, is the only metal which 
is liquid at an ordinary temperature. It freezes at 40° 
F., forming a ductile, malleable mass and boils at 662° 
F., forming a colorless vapor; it volatilizes, however, 
even at ordinary temperatures. Compounded with other 
metals it forms alloys whose properties vary very much 
according to the metals used. In most cases the amal- 
gams are at first liquid and after some time acquire a 
crystallized form, whereby the mercury in excess is 
separated. 

The amalgams offer an excellent means of studying 
the behavior of the metals towards each other, the ex- 
amination being facilitated by the low temperature at 
which these combinations are formed. If a metal be 
dissolved in mercury, and the latter be present in excess, 
a crystalline combination will in a short time be observed 
to separate from the originally liquid mass. This crys- 
talline combination forms the actual amalgam and is 
composed of proportions which can be expressed accord- 
ing to determined atomic weights, and can be readily 
obtained by removing the excess of mercury by pressure. 

Many amalgams require considerable time to pass 
into the crystalline state, and are at first so soft that 
they can be kneaded in the hand like wax, but harden 
completely in time. They are especially adapted and 
much used for filling hollow teeth. 
30 



350 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Before the action of the galvanic current upon solu- 
tions of metals was known, amalgams were of great 
importance for gilding and silvering, which was effected 
by coating the article to be gilt or silvered with the 
amalgam and volatilizing the mercury by the applica- 
tion of heat, whereby the gold and silver remained be- 
hind as a coherent coat (fire gilding). 

The affinity of metals for mercury varies very much ; 
while many metals combine with it with great ease; 
others do so only with great difficulty, and their union 
with the mercury can only be accomplished in a round- 
about manner. 

Though the amalgams are of considerable theoretical 
interest and of great importance for a general knowledge 
of alloys, only a limited number of them are used in the 
industries, which will be somewhat more closely de- 
scribed in the following :- — 

Gold amalgam. — Gold and mercury alloy freely, and 
the amalgam can be prepared by the direct union of the 
two metals. If the gold to be used has been obtained 
by the chemical process (by the reduction of salts of 
gold) it dissolves with difficulty in the mercury, it being 
in a finely divided state, and the finer particles apt to 
float upon the surface of the mercury. If, however, the 
gold is reduced in the form of larger crystals, the solu- 
tion takes place in a comparatively short time. Such 
small gold crystals can be readily obtained by dissolving 
chloride of gold in amyl alcohol and heating the solu- 
tion to boiling, whereby the gold is separated in the 
form of very small, lustrous crystals. 

In gaining gold from auriferous sand, gold amalgam 



351 

is prepared in large masses, and by subsequent heating 
in iron retorts the combination is destroyed, the mercury 
volatilizing, while the pure gold remains behind. Gold 
forms with mercury a chemical combination of the for- 
mula Au 4 Hg, which shows great tendency towards crys- 
tallization, which, in preparing the amalgam, must be 
prevented as much as possible, it being difficult to apply 
a crystalline amalgam to the articles to be gilded. 

An amalgam suitable for fire gilding is best prepared 
as follows : Heat in a graphite crucible, rubbed inside 
with chalk to prevent adhesion, the gold to be alloyed 
to a red heat. It is not absolutely necessary, to use 
chemically* pure gold, but it should be at least 22 carat 
fine, and preferably alloyed with silver instead of cop- 
per. Gold amalgam containing copper becomes stone 
hard in a short time, and a small content of it impairs 
its uniform application to the metals to be gilded. It 
is best to use the gold in the form of thin sheets, which 
is cut into small pieces by means of scissors, and brought 
into the crucible. When the gold is heated to a red 
heat, introduce about the eighth or ninth part of the 
weight of the gold of mercury previously heated to 
boiling. Stir constantly with an iron rod, and after a 
few minutes remove the crucible from the fire. If the 
finished amalgam were allowed to cool in the crucible, it 
would become strongly crystalline and be unsuitable for 
fine gilding. To prevent this it is at once poured into 
a larger vessel cooled by water. By keeping this amal- 
gam for some time, crystallization takes place neverthe- 
less, the amalgam separating from the mercury in excess, 
and it is therefore advisable to prepare it fresh a short 



352 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

time before use. Crystalline amalgam can be restored 
by heating it in a crucible with an excess of mercury. 

In preparing the amalgam, as well as in using it for 
gilding, a wind-furnace connected with a well-drawing 
chimney has to be used, as otherwise the vapors evolved 
from the mercury exert an injurious effect upon the 
health of the workmen. 

Amalgam of silver. — The properties of silver amalgam 
are nearly the same in most respects as those of gold 
amalgam, it having, however, a still greater tendency 
towards crystallization. Only pure silver can be used 
for its preparation, a content of copper producing the 
same injurious effect as in gold amalgam. Silver amal- 
gam is best prepared by using pulverulent silver obtained 
by the reduction of silver solution. It may be prepared 
by bringing a solution of nitrate of silver in 10 to 15 
parts of water into a bottle, adding a few small pieces 
of sheet zinc and vigorously shaking a few minutes. 
The silver separating in the form of a very fine black- 
gray powder need only be washed and dried to be suit- 
able for the preparation of amalgam. This finely divided 
powder can be directly dissolved in the mercury, though 
it requires some time. The object is more quickly attained 
by heating the mercury nearly to boiling in a crucible, 
then throwing in the pulverulent silver and quickly 
combining the mass by vigorous stirring with an iron 
rod. 

Silver amalgam can also be prepared without the use 
of heat, it being only necessary to compound a concen- 
trated solution of nitrate of silver (1 part of nitrate of 
silver in 3 of distilled water) with four times the quan- 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY, ETC. 353 

tity of mercury and combine the liquids by shaking. 
The silver is reduced from the nitrate by the mercury 
and dissolves immediately in the excess of it. If the 
amalgam is to be used for fire-silvering, the presence of 
the small quantity of nitrate of mercury adhering to it 
is of no consequence, and it can be at once applied. 

Fire-gilding. — Fire-gilding or fire-silvering is always 
effected with a pure amalgam, i. e., such as is freed as 
much as possible from an excess of mercury. For this 
purpose the amalgam is tied in a bag of strong chamois- 
leather and subjected to a gradually increasing pressure, 
whereby the mercury is forced through the pores of the 
leather while the amalgam remains in the bag. The 
pressed-out mercury contains a considerable quantity of 
gold or silver in solution and is used in the preparation 
of fresh amalgam. 

Fire-gilding or silvering is, of course, only applicable 
to articles of metals which, without melting, will stand 
a temperature near that of the boiling point of mercury. 
The amalgam adhering only to absolutely bright metals, 
the articles before gilding are subjected to a preparatory 
operation. This consists in heating them to a glowing 
heat, whereby the grease, dust, etc., adhering to the sur- 
face are burnt, and the metal becomes covered with a 
layer of oxide. The articles are then dipped in a mix- 
ture of 3 parts of nitric acid and 1 of sulphuric acid, 
whereby the oxide is rapidly dissolved and the metal 
acquires a bright surface. Articles to be heavily gilded 
must remain for some time in the acid mixture, a rougher 
surface being required for the adherence of a larger 
quantity of amalgam. 

30* 



354 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The pickled articles are then rinsed in water without 
touching them with the hands, and, to prevent oxida- 
tion, placed in water until they are to be amalgamated, 
which consists in covering the bright articles with a 
layer of metallic mercury. This so-called amalgama- 
ting water is prepared by dissolving 100 parts by weight 
of mercury in 110 parts by weight of strong nitric acid 
and compounding the solution with 25 parts by weight 
of water. This amalgamating water is applied to the 
metal by means of a brush of fine brass wire. By the 
action of the metal upon the mercury salt the latter is 
reduced to metallic mercury in the form of very small 
drops, whereby the articles acquire a white color. 

The articles being thoroughly amalgamated, the 
amalgam is quickly and uniformly applied with a stiff 
scratch-brush and the articles placed upon glowing coals, 
whereby the mercury e vaporizes while the gold or silver 
remains behind in a coherent layer. While heating the 
articles must, however, be frequently taken out and de- 
fective places provided with amalgam. This process is 
very injurious to health ; the mercury volatilized by the 
heat insinuates itself into the body of the workmen not- 
withstanding the greatest care, and those who are so 
fortunate as to escape for a time absolute disease are con- 
stantly liable to salivation from its effects. Though 
fire-gilding is the most durable, it is more and more 
abandoned and electro-plating substituted for it. 

Many articles are not finished by one gilding, and 
have to be subjected to the same process twice and fre- 
quently three times, whereby the layer of gold becomes, 
of course, thicker. By suitable treatment during the 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY, ETC. 355 

heating and by burning off the so-called gilder's wax 
various shades can be given to the gilding. But, as 
these operations belong to another branch of industry, 
we cannot enter upon a further description of them. 

Amalgams of the platinum metals. — Though the plati- 
num metals can be combined with mercury, the amal- 
gams obtained are thus far not used in the industries, 
the plating of articles with platinum or allied metals 
being entirely effected by means of galvanism. 

Amalgam of copper. — On account of its peculiar 
properties amalgam of copper finds quite an extensive 
use in several branches of industry. 

It crystallizes with great ease, and on solidifying be- 
comes so hard that it can be polished like gold. It can 
also be worked under the hammer and between rolls, 
be stamped, and retains its metallic lustre for some time 
on exposure to the air, but tarnishes quickly and turns 
black on being brought in contact with air containing 
sulphuretted hydrogen. A peculiar property of amal- 
gam of copper is that it becomes soft on being placed in 
boiling water, and so flexible that it can be used for 
moulding the most delicate articles. In a few hours it 
again solidifies to a fine-grained mass which is quite 
malleable. 

Copper amalgam, on account of its peculiar proper- 
ties, was formerly recommended for filling hollow teeth, 
but is no longer used for that purpose, there being other 
amalgams just as suitable and free from poisonous 
copper. An important application of copper amalgam 
is for cementing metal, it being only necessary to apply 
it to the metals to be cemented, which must be bright 



356 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and previously heated to from 176° to 194° F., and 
press them together ; they will be joined as tightly as 
if soldered. 

Many directions have been given for preparing amal- 
gam of copper, but it is effected with the greatest ease 
as follows : Place strips of zinc in a solution of sul- 
phate of copper and shake vigorously. The copper thus 
obtained in the form of a delicate powder is washed, 
and, while still moist, treated in a rubbing-dish with a 
solution of mercurous nitrate. Hot water is then poured 
over the copper, the dish kept warm, and the mercury 
added. The contents of the dish are then kneaded with 
a pestle until the pulverulent copper combines with the 
mercury to a plastic mass ; the longer the kneading is 
continued the more homogeneous the mass will be. The 
best proportions to use are 3 parts of copper and 7 of 
mercury. 

When the amalgam has the proper consistency, the 
water is poured off and the soft amalgam moulded in 
the shape in which it is to be preserved. For the pur- 
pose of cementing it is recommended to roll it into 
small cylinders about ^ inch in diameter and § to 1J 
inches long. 

A composition of 25 parts of copper in fine powder, 
obtained by precipitation from solutions of the oxide by 
hydrogen, or of the sulphate by zinc, washed with sul- 
phuric acid and amalgamated with 7 parts of mercury, 
after being well washed and dried, is moderately hard, 
takes a good polish, and makes a fine solder for low 
temperatures. It will adhere to glass. 

An imitation of gold, which, on account of its golden- 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY, ETC. 357 

yellow color and capability for taking a fine polish, is 
suitable for the manufacture of cheap jewelry, consists 
of copper 86.4 parts, mercury 13.6. The color of the 
alloy being, however, very easily affected by sulphur- 
etted hydrogen, it is recommended to provide the arti- 
cles with a thin coating of pure gold by the galvanic 
method. 

Dronier's malleable bronze is made by adding 1 per 
cent, of mercury to the tin when hot, and this amalgam 
is carefully introduced into the melted copper. 

Amalgam of tin. — This amalgam was formerly of 
much greater importance for the manufacture of mirrors 
and looking-glasses than it is at the present time, when 
mirrors coated with a thin layer of silver surpass those 
coated with amalgam in beauty and cheapness. The 
great affinity of tin for mercury renders the preparation 
of the amalgam easy ; all that is necessary is to com- 
bine the tin, which is best used in the form of fine 
shavings or of foil with the mercury. According to the 
quantity of mercury rubbed together with the tin, an 
amalgam solidifying in a shorter or longer time is ob- 
tained. 

Amalgam of tin for filling teeth. — This amalgam is 
prepared by intimately rubbing together 1 part of tin 
with 4 of mercury, removing the excess of mercury by 
pressing in a leather bag and kneading or rubbing for 
some time. It is obtained in a flexible mass which 
hardens in a few days. 

Amalgam for mirrors and looldng-glasscs. — The amal- 
gam which serves for silvering mirrors is a complete 
saturation of the two metals. It is, however, not pre- 



358 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

pared by itself, but directly upon the plate of glass 
which is to form the mirror. The operation is as fol- 
lows : The glass plate having been thoroughly cleansed 
from all grease and dirt with putty-powder and wood 
ash, the workman proceeds to lay a sheet of tin foil of 
larger dimensions than the plate to be silvered smoothly 
upon the silvering table, pressing out with a cloth dab- 
ber all wrinkles and places likely to form air-bubbles. 
A small quantity of mercury is then poured upon it and 
uniformly distributed by means of a fine woollen cloth. 
When the surface is uniformly covered more mercury is 
added so as to attain a height of 2 or 3 lines ; the coat- 
ing of oxide is removed with a wooden rod and a bril- 
liant surface produced. The plate of glass is then 
pushed slowly forward from the side with the longest 
edge foremost, and dipping below the surface of the 
mercury so as completely to exclude the air. In this 
way the glass is brought into contact with the metals 
and a brilliant surface produced. The plate may now 
be said to be floating on a bed of mercury. To get rid 
of the excess of metal the mirror is loaded with weights 
and the table inclined 10° or 12°, when the excess of 
mercury drains off. A further portion is got rid of by 
setting the plate up on edge, and in the course of three 
or four weeks a dry, permanent coating of tin amalgam 
is left upon the plate. 

If curved glass plates are to be converted into mir- 
rors, the amalgam is prepared by itself, and after spread- 
ing it as uniformly as possible upon the glass the latter is 
heated until the amalgam melts. 

This method of silvering has many objections : the 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY, ETC. 359 

vapor of mercury is poisonous to the workmen ; the 
plates are liable to fracture from the heavy load placed 
upon them, and when set up on edge drops of mercury 
sometimes trickle down, carrying the amalgam with 
them, thus rendering it necessary to resilver the whole 
mirror. Moreover, the amalgam is liable to spoil by 
crystallization or carriage. For these reasons this pro- 
cess has been almost entirely abandoned and that of sil- 
vering by precipitation substituted for it. 

Amalgam for electric machines. — This amalgam, known 
as Kienmayer's, consists of mercury 2 parts, tin 1, and 
zinc 1 . It is best prepared by heating the mercury in a 
rubbing dish and combining with it the metals pre- 
viously converted into fine shavings by constant knead- 
ing. To prevent the amalgam from becoming crystal- 
line a small quantity of tallow is finally added and the 
kneading continued until the tallow is also completely 
combined with the amalgam. The finished amalgam 
must be kept in a well-stoppered glass vessel and should 
be used within a few months, as in time it becomes crys- 
talline. 

Amalgam for tinning. — Small articles of iron, for in- 
stance pins, can be tinned by making them first bright 
by pickling in an acid, dipping in melted tin amalgam, 
blanching in dilute acid, drying and polishing. 

Amalgam of zinc. — Zinc amalgamates readily with 
mercury, it being only necessary to heat the latter to the 
boiling point and introduce the zinc in small pieces. 
Zinc amalgam is not directly employed, but is largely 
used in the zinc anodes of galvanic batteries. For this 
purpose it is, however, prepared upon the zinc plate itself 



360 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

by heating the latter to about 482° to 500°. F., and, 
after quickly and uniformly coating it by means of a 
brush with a solution of chloride of zinc and ammonia, 
dipping at once into mercury. Amalgamation takes 
place at once, and the plates thus amalgamated give cur- 
rents of greater constancy and intensity than ordinary 
zinc plates. 

Amalgam of cadmium. — Cadmium readily combines 
with mercury to an amalgam which easily becomes crys- 
talline. For the preparation of the actual cadmium 
amalgam, whose composition is Cd 5 Hg 8 , proceed in the 
same manner as already described for other amalgams. 
Heat the mercury nearly to boiling in a crucible and in- 
troduce the cadmium in the form of thin sheet. Cad- 
mium amalgam remains soft for some time and becomes 
crystalline only after a considerable period. The mass 
obtained by heating is, therefore, allowed to stand in the 
crucible until the excess of mercury separates out or it 
can be separated in the ordinary manner by pressing in 
a leather bag. 

Pure cadmium amalgam forms a tin-white or silver- 
white mass which softens on being moderately heated 
and can be kneaded like wax. It is used for filling hol- 
low teeth either by itself or compounded Avith other 
metals which make it still better for the purpose. An 
addition of tin or bismuth makes it more pliant in the 
heat, and for this reason the mass used for filling teeth 
is at present frequently composed of amalgams contain- 
ing several metals. A few such compositions are given 
in the following. Those containing lead are, however, 
not recommended, as lead has poisonous properties and 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY, ETC. 361 

is attacked even in the form of an amalgam by organic 
acids : — 

Amalgams for filling teeth. 
Parts. 



I. II. III. IV. V. 

Cadmium . . . 25.99 21.74 1 1 to 2 3 

Mercury . . . 74.01 78.26 — — — 

Tin .... — — 2 2 4 

Lead . . . . — — — 7 to 8 15 

Amalgam No. I. corresponds to the centesimal com- 
position of the above-mentioned combination of cad- 
mium and mercury and is well adapted for filling teeth, 
it acquiring in time such hardness that it can be worked 
with the lathe or file, and, of course, becomes hard in 
the mouth. Cadmium amalgams being very ductile can, 
moreover, be used for many other purposes. An amal- 
gam of equal parts of cadmium and mercury is ex- 
tremely plastic and can be stretched under the hammer 
like pure gold. It is silver-white and constant in the 
air. 

Evans's metallic cement. — This alloy is obtained by dis- 
solving a cadmium amalgam consisting of 25.99 parts 
of cadmium and 74.01 of mercury in an excess of mer- 
cury, slightly pressing the solution in a leather bag and 
thoroughly kneading. By kneading, especially if the 
amalgam be previously heated to about 97° F., Evans's 
metallic cement is rendered very plastic and like softened 
wax can be brought into any desired form. On cooling 
it acquires considerable hardness, which is, however, not 
equal to that of pure cadmium amalgam. 
31 



362 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Amalgams of the "fusible alloys" — The fusible alloys 
already mentioned in speaking of the alloys of cadmium 
and bismuth possess the property of melting in an amal- 
gamated state at a still lower temperature than by them- 
selves. By adding a suitable quantity of mercury to 
them they can be converted into masses well adapted for 
filling teeth or for cementing metals. 

Amalgam of Lijioivitz's metal. — This amalgam (com- 
pare p. 298) is prepared as follows : Melt in a dish cad- 
mium 3 parts, tin 4, bismuth 1 5, and lead 8, and add to 
the melted alloy mercury 2 parts, previously heated to 
about 212° F. Amalgamation takes place readily and 
smoothly. After the introduction of the mercury the 
dish is immediately taken from the fire and the liquid 
mass stirred until it solidifies. While Lipowitz's alloy 
becomes soft at 140° F. and melts at 158° F., the amal- 
gam melts at about 143.5° F. It is very suitable for the 
production of impressions of objects of natural history, 
direct impressions of leaves and other delicate parts of 
plants being obtained, which, as regards sharpness, are 
equal to the best plaster of Paris casts, and, on account 
of the silver-white color, fine lustre, and constancy of 
the amalgam, present a very neat appearance. The 
amalgam can also be used for the manufacture of small, 
hollow statuettes and busts, which can be readily gilt or 
bronzed by the galvanic process. 

The manufacture of small statuettes is readily effected 
by preparing a hollow mould of plaster of Paris, and, 
after uniformly heating it to about 140° F., pouring in 
the melted amalgam. The mould is then swung to and 
fro, this being continued until the amalgam is solidified. 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY, ETC. 363 

After cooling the mould is taken apart and the seams 
trimmed with a sharp knife. Some experience being re- 
quired to swing the mould so that all parts are uniformly 
moistened with the amalgam, it may happen that defec- 
tive casts are at first obtained ; in such case the amalgam 
is simply remelted and the operation commenced anew. 
With some skill the operator will soon succeed in apply- 
ing a uniform layer to the sides of the mould and pre- 
paring casts with very thin sides. The operation may 
also be modified by placing the mould upon a rapidly 
revolving disk and pouring in the melted amalgam in, a 
thin stream. By the centrifugul force developed the 
melted metal is hurled against the sides of the mould, 
and in this manner statuettes of considerable size can be 
cast. 

Amalgam of iron. — Iron possessing but little affinity 
for mercury it is impossible directly to combine the two 
metals. The amalgam may, however, be prepared by 
rubbing together very finely divided iron with mercuric 
chloride and water and a few drops of metallic mercury. 
Pure amalgam of iron forms lustrous white crystals, 
which, however, soon lose their lustre on exposure to the 
air and become coated with rust. By lying in the air 
the iron contained in the amalgam is in a short time con- 
verted into ferric oxide, which iloats upon the metallic 
mercury. 

Though scientifically of interest amalgam of iron is 
only used in the industries in rare cases where iron is to 
fire-gilt, and then is produced upon the article to be 
gilded itself. For this purpose the article previously 
made bright by pickling is boiled in a mixture of mer- 



364 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

eury 12 parts, zinc 1, copperas 2, water 12, hydrochloric 
acid 1.5. The mercury dissolved in the solution sepa- 
rates upon the iron article, a thin lustrous layer of iron 
amalgam being formed upon the surface to which the 
amalgam of gold can be readily and uniformly applied 
without further preparation. The subsequent treatment 
of the gilded article is the same as described under fire- 
gilding. 

Amalgam of bismuth. — By introducing mercury into 
melted bismuth a combination of the two metals is 
readily effected. The resulting amalgam being very 
thinly fluid can be advantageously used for filling out 
very delicate moulds. Other amalgams are also ren- 
dered more thinly fluid by an addition of bismuth amal- 
gam, a few examples of which have already been given 
under cadmium amalgams, and such combinations, being 
cheaper than pure bismuth amalgam, are frequently used. 

Bismuth amalgams can be used for nearly all pur- 
poses for which cadmium amalgams are employed. On 
account of their lustre, which is at least equal to that 
of silver, they are preferred for certain purposes, such as 
for silvering glass globes and the preparation of anatomi- 
cal specimens. 

Amalgams for silvering glass globes, etc. — Glass globes 
can be readily silvered by either of the following com- 
positions : — 

Parts. 



I. II. III. 

Bismuth 2 2 2 

Lead ..... 2 2 2 

Tin ...... 2 2 2 

Mercury 2 4 18 



ALLOYS OF MERCURY, ETC. 365 

First melt the lead and tin and then add the bismuth. 
After removing the drosses pour the mercury into the 
compound and stir vigorously. Leaves of Dutch gold 
are sometimes introduced into the mixture according to 
the color to be imparted to the globes. For silvering 
the globes heat them carefully to the melting point of 
the amalgam. Then pour a small quantity of the amal- 
gam into the cavity of the globe and swing it to and fro 
until its entire surface appears covered. 

Amalgam of bismuth for anatomical preparations. — 
Colored wax was formerly exclusively used by anato- 
mists for injecting vessels. A bismuth amalgam, being 
of a silvery-white color, is, however, preferable, and by 
becoming hard on cooling contributes essentially to the 
solidity of the preparation. The amalgam used for the 
purpose melts at 169° F. and remains liquid at 140° F., 
the latter property rendering its use especially suitable 
for larger preparations. It is composed of: Bismuth 10 
parts, lead 3.2, tin 3.5, mercury 2. For use, heat the 
amalgam in a dish in a water-bath to 212° F., which 
insures it being forced by the injection-pump into the 
finest ramifications of the vessels. 

Amalgam of sodium. — By itself this amalgam is not 
used, it quickly decomposing on exposure to the air into 
caustic soda and mercury. It can, however, be used in 
the preparation of many amalgams which cannot be 
made by the direct method. By bringing, for instance, 
amalgam of sodium together with a solution of a me- 
tallic chloride, the respective metal is generally sepa- 
rated from the chlorine combination by the sodium, and 
the moment it is liberated unites with the mercury to 

31* 



366 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

an amalgam while the sodium combines with the chlo- 
rine. The presence of a very small quantity of sodium 
amalgam exerts, moreover, a very favorable effect upon 
the formation of amalgams, and by its use in the pro- 
cess of amalgamation for gaining gold and silver consid- 
erable time is saved and the amalgamation more com- 
plete. 

Sodium amalgam can be prepared by melting sodium 
under petroleum and introducing the mercury through 
a very narrow glass tube. Both metals combine at once 
with the emission of a peculiar noise, and the amalgam 
solidifies to a silver-white mass, which, to prevent the 
oxidation of the sodium, must, however, be kept under 
petroleum until it is to be used. 

By introducing sodium amalgam into a solution of 
chloride of ammonium it swells to many times its 
former bulk, rises to the surface of the fluid, and is 
converted into amalgam of ammonium, which is, how- 
ever, very unstable, being decomposed into ammonia, 
hydrogen, and metallic mercury on exposure to the air. 

MaJcenzie's amalgam. — This amalgam, which is solid 
at an ordinary temperature and becomes liquid by 
simple friction, may be prepared as follows : Melt 2 
parts of bismuth and 4 of lead in separate crucibles, 
then throw the melted metals into two other crucibles, 
each containing 1 part of mercury. When cold these 
alloys or amalgams are solid, but will melt when rubbed 
one against the other. 

Other amalgams. — Besides the amalgams described in 
the preceding section, there are a number of others, 
each metal, as previously mentioned, being capable of 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 367 

forming an amalgam. It is, however, not necessary to 
enter further into this subject, as none besides those 
mentioned are of any technical value. 

The preparation of all these amalgams is effected in 
the same manner. Introduce into the solution of the 
pure chloride of the respective metal a corresponding 
quantity of sodium amalgam. The sodium combines at 
once with the chlorine, while the liberated metal forms 
an amalgam with the mercury. 

The amalgams of many metals have not as yet been 
thoroughly examined, and some of them, as, for in- 
stance, the amalgams of nickel, cobalt, and chromium, 
may yet be called to take an important part in the prac- 
tice of the industrial arts. 



XXXIX. 

MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 

This section contains alloys we have not been able to 
classify in the preceding series. The following receipts 
for alloys are taken from " Industrie Blatter/ 7 edited by 
E. Jacobsen.' 

We will first mention a mixture especially adapted for 
seizing as a protective cover in remelting metallic alloys. 
It is composed of borax, calcined soda, calcined alum, 
and fluor spar, each 1 part. 

Iron is frequently added to copper-zinc alloys, but an 
addition of more than 2.5 per cent, is not admissible, all 
above that remaining unfixed and in excess in the cru- 



368 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

cible. Alloys of copper and zinc with a content of iron 
always show a more reddish-yellow color than pure 
alloys of copper and zinc. In preparing speculum metal 
iron does excellent service. Such an alloy consists of 
iron 10 parts, nickel 36, copper 18, tin 18, and zinc 18. 
This is one of the best compositions for concave mirrors 
and analogous works. The metal closely resembles 
platinum, takes an excellent polish, and with a corre- 
sponding power of resistance possesses great hardness. 
Another alloy for speculum metal is composed of 32 
parts of copper, 15.5 of tin, 2 of nickel; some arsenic 
may be advantageously added to this alloy. There are 
a number of alloys known as speculum metal, but when 
closely examined under the microscope they show 
crystals which impair the beauty of the mirrors. 

Alloy for spoons. — A beautiful alloy closely resem- 
bling silver is obtained by melting together 50 parts of 
copper, 25 of nickel, and 25 of zinc. 

Alloy resembling Germain silver consists of copper 58 
parts, zinc 27, nickel 12, tin 2, aluminium 0.5, and bis- 
muth 0.5. The separate metals are first melted by 
themselves and then combined by vigorous stirring. 
This metal retains its polish for a long time. 

Alloy resembling silver,— Copper 70 parts, manganese 
30, zinc 20 to 25. 

Non-oxidizable alloy. — Iron 10 parts, nickel 36, 
copper 18, tin 18, zinc 18. This metal has a white 
color, with a slightly reddish tinge. 

Colin. — This term is applied to an alloy for metallic 
foils used by the Chinese for lining tea-chests. It is 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 369 

composed of lead 126 parts, tin 17.5, and copper 1.25, 
besides a trace of zinc. 

Alloy for moulds for pressed glass. — An alloy suitable 
for this purpose is obtained according to C. H. Knoop, 
of Dresden, by melting together 100 parts of iron with 
10 to 25 parts of nickel. 

New method of preparing alloys. — The alloys consist 
of heavy metals and the sulphides of the alkali metals 
or metals of the alkaline earths. Preferably sulphide 
of strontium is alloyed with copper in order to obtain a 
product of a constant gold-like color. For this purpose 
zinc is melted together with 8 to 15 per cent, of , calcined 
strontium sulphate and the resulting alloy allowed to 
cool. To this alloy a varying quantity of copper is 
added, according to the color and power of resistance 
required. As much of the zinc as may be desired can 
be expelled by subsequent cupellation. 

Alloys of indium and gallium. — L. de Boisbaudran, the 
discoverer of gallium, has experimented with alloys of 
indium and gallium. They are distinguished by not 
having a fixed melting point, but soften gradually, like 
fats. In this semi-liquid condition they form a mixture 
of melted and crystalline metal. L. de Boisbaudran 
has prepared the following alloys : — 

1. Indium 227 parts, gallium 69.9 parts. This alloy 
is white, granular, and can be readily cut with the knife ; 
it begins to melt at 132.8° F., and is viscid at 167° F. 

2. Iridium 113.5 parts, gallium 69.9. This alloy 
forms a white coherent mass, but is still softer than the 
first alloy. It is hard at 60.8° F., semi-liquid at 113° F., 
and liquid at from 140° to 176° F. 



370 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

3. Iridium 113.5 parts, gallium 139.8. White; soft, 
It hardens at 60.8° F. ; is butyraceous at 64.4° F. ; liquid 
from 140° to 176° F. 

4. Indium 113.5 parts, gallium 279.6. This alloy is 
white, commences to melt at 62° F., is semi-liquid at 
95° F., and liquid at 122° F. 

Platinoid. — This alloy, invented by H. Martino, is a 
kind of German silver with an addition of 1 to 2 per 
cent, of tungsten. The latter, in the form of phosphor- 
tungsten, is first melted together with a certain quantity 
of copper, the nickel is next added, then the zinc, and 
finally the remainder of copper. In order to remove 
the phosphorus and a portion of the tungsten, both of 
which separate as dross, the resulting compound is 
several times remelted. Finally an alloy of a beautiful 
white color is obtained, which, when polished, closely 
resembles silver, and retains its lustre for a long time. 
Platinoid has the properties of German silver in a 
pre-eminent degree. It shows great resistance, which 
changes but little with the temperature, and is about 1 J 
times greater than that of German silver. To deter- 
mine the dependence of the resistance on the tempera- 
ture, platinoid wire was wound upon a bobbin provided 
with a thread, and uniformly heated in an oil-bath. 
The experiments gave the following table, in which the 
resistance at 0° C. is placed == 1. 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 



371 



Temperature. 


Resistance. 


Temperature. 


Resistance. 


(PC.. 


1.0000 


60° C. . 


1.0126 


10 


1.0024 


70 


1.0134 


20 


1.0044 


80 


1.0166 


30 


1.0066 


90 ... 


1.0188 


40 . . . 


1.0075 


100 ... 


1.0209 


50 


1.0097 







This shows an average increase of resistance of 0.0209 
for 1° C. between 0° and 100° C. ; another experiment 
with wire gave an average of 0.022 for 1° C. Accord- 
ing to experiments by Matthiessen and the more recent 
ones by Erno, the increase in the resistance of copper is 
0.38 per cent, and of German silver 0.044 per cent. 
Hence platinoid is in this respect far superior to other 
wire in use. 

Steel composition. — Steel shavings 60 parts, copper 
22.5, mercury 20, tin 15, lead 7.5, and zinc 15, are 
gradually introduced and dissolved in 860 parts of 
nitric acid. The resulting reddish-brown paste is dried, 
melted together with twenty times its weight of zinc, 
and the mass cast in ingots. After cooling, the alloy is 
remelted with a corresponding addition of tin, according 
to whether it is to be softer or harder. 

Malleable ferro-cobalt and ferro-nickel. — For the direct 
gaining of malleable ferro-cobalt or ferro-nickel, the 
"Fonderie de nickel et meteaux blancs" of Paris claims 
to utilize either the ores themselves or to prepare first an 
especially suitable initial product for the final result by 
melting together corresponding quantities of nickel or 
cobalt and chromium ores. In melting together the 



372 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ores the degree of heat at which the liquation of the 
iron would take place must, however, not be attained. 
This product of melting, or the raw materials them- 
selves, are melted together in a suitable crucible with 
potassium ferrocyanide and peroxide of manganese. In 
running off, a small quantity of aluminium is added. 
According to the condition desired for the final product, 
and according to the original content of iron of the ores, 
a larger or smaller quantity of cast-iron or wrought - 
iron can be added from the start, whereby a more or 
less soft and malleable product is obtained. If, for 
instance, an alloy of 70 per cent, of nickel and 30 per 
cent, of iron, with a very small content of sulphur, be 
used, 71.9 parts of fused nickel, 12 of peroxide of man- 
ganese, 16 of potassium ferrocyanide, and 0.1 of alu- 
minium are taken for the mass to be melted together. 
If, however, nickel ore containing only about 25 per 
cent, of pure nickel with 64 per cent, of iron, and 11 
per cent, of other admixtures, be used, the melting mate- 
rial is best composed of about 82 parts of fused nickel, 
8 of peroxide of manganese, and 10 of potassium ferro- 
cyanide. The alloys thus obtained are claimed to excel 
in perfect malleability, and completely to retain this 
property when remelted, so that, on the one hand, mal- 
leable ingots are at once produced, and, on the other, 
all waste and defective castings can be again utilized. 

Bronze resisting acids. — Debie gives the following re- 
ceipt: Copper 15 parts, zinc 2.34, lead 1.82, antimony 1. 
This alloy melted in a crucible can be worked in the 
ordinary manner, and is claimed to answer as substitute 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 373 

for lead for lining vessels used in the manufacture of 
sulphuric acid, etc. 

Zinc-iron being very brittle is used little as an alloy, 
but on account of its brilliant light promises to become 
of considerable value for pyrotechnics. Theoretically 
it is also interesting as an alloy of a very volatile with 
a non-volatile metal, and, further, it offers the readiest 
means of obtaining zinc in a finely divided state for 
purposes where the presence of iron is not objectionable. 
The best method of preparing the alloy is as follows : 
Heat 1 to 2 pounds of zinc in a clay crucible to the 
melting point, then throw 3 to 3.5 ounces of anhydrous 
sodium ferrous chloride upon the surface of the melted 
zinc and immediately cover the crucible. A very vigor- 
ous reaction takes place during the formation of the 
alloy mixed with zinc chloride (Zn -f FeCl 2 -f- Fe). 
The excess of the zinc alloys with the reduced iron 
forms the exceedingly brittle zinc-iron which can be 
readily pulverized. 

An alloy which expands on cooling is prepared from 
lead 9 parts, antimony 2, and bismuth 2. It is very 
suitable for filling up small holes and defective places 
in cast-iron. 

Sjjence's metal. — This compound is an English inven- 
tion and is named after the inventor. Strictly speaking, 
it is not a metal, but a compound obtained by dissolving 
metallic sulphides in melted sulphur, which is found to 
be capable of receiving into solution nearly all the sul- 
phides of the metals. For most purposes Mr. Spence 
employs in the production of his "metal" the sulphides 
of iron, lead, and zinc, in varying proportions, accord- 
32 



374 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ing to the quality of the product desired, which will de- 
pend on the uses for which it is designed. On cooling 
the mixture solidifies, forming a homogeneous, tenacious 
mass, having ordinarily a specific gravity of 3.37 to 3.7. 
It is said to be exceedingly useful in the laboratory for 
making the air-tight connections between glass tubes by 
means of caoutchouc and a water or mercury jacket 
where rigidity is no disadvantage. The fusing point is 
so low that it may be run into the outer tube on to 
the caoutchouc, which it grips, on cooling, like a vise 
and makes it perfectly tight. It melts at 320° F., ex- 
pands on cooling, is claimed to be capable of resisting 
well the disintegrating action of the atmosphere, is at- 
tacked by but few acids, and by them but slowly ; or by 
alkalies ; is insoluble in water and may receive a high 
polish. It makes clean, full castings, taking very per- 
fect impressions ; it is cheap and easily worked. It has 
been used as solder for gas-pipes and as a joint material 
in place of lead. 

Lutecine or Paris metal. — Copper 800 parts, nickel 
160, tin 20, cobalt 10, iron 5, and zinc 5. 

Alloys for small patterns in foundries. 
I. Tin 7.5 parts, lead 2.5. 
II. Zinc 75 parts, tin 25. 
III. Tin 30 parts, lead 70. 

The last of these alloys is for patterns which will not 
be in frequent use and which may be mended, bent, etc. 
The first gives harder and stiifer patterns ; the second is 
harder than tin and more tenacious than zinc, while at 
the same time it preserves a certain ductility. 

Alloys for calico-printing rollers. — Hauvel considers a 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 375 

semi-hard bronze of the following composition the best 
material for the rollers : Copper 86 parts, tin 14, zinc 2. 

Rendel, on the other hand, found an English roller 
material composed of: Copper 5.6 parts, zinc 78.3, tin 
15.8. Though this compound gives a hard, fine-grained 
alloy, it is likely very readily attacked by the colors 
used in printing. 

According to analyses by J. Depierre and P. Spiral, 
the composition of the scrapers (sometimes called doctors 
or ductors) intended to remove the surplus of colors 
from the rollers is as follows : — - 







Copper. 


Zinc. 


,Tin. 


11(N 


v French scrapers 


. 78.75 


12.50 


8.75 


(( 


English scrapers . 


. 80.50 


10.50 


8.00 


c< 


German scrapers . 


. 85.80 


9.80 


4.90 



According to the researches of the above-named scien- 
tists, three groups are to be distinguished : 1. Copper 
with 95 to 100 per cent, of copper ; 2. Brass with about 
60 per cent, of copper and 40 per cent, of zinc • and 3. 
Alloys. In the annexed table I. the physical properties 
of the examined pieces are given, whereby it has, how- 
ever, to be remarked that in rollers for printing calico, 
where the hardness of the metal is of considerable im- 
portance, the chemical composition alone does not ex- 
press the characteristics of the metal, they depending 
also on the manner of hardening and tempering. 

Table II. shows the chemical composition of the 
samples. 

Besides red copper the alloys containing 25 to 30 per 
cent, of zinc and 75 to 70 per cent, of copper are es- 
pecially suitable for rollers. Even as small a content 
of lead as 0.5 per cent, exerts an injurious influence, and 



376 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



the samples containing lead showed blow-holes. The 
presence of phosphorus could not be detected in any of 
the samples, but Messrs. Depierre and Spiral are of the 
opinion that rolls of copper, containing 1 to 2 per cent, 
of phosphorus, would yield excellent results as regards 
resistance against chemical influences, as well as hard- 
ness, fineness of grain, homogeneousness and durability. 
An addition of 1 per cent, of phosphorus might also be 
recommended for varieties of brass containing 30 to 35 
per cent, of zinc. 

Table L 



6 






>» 






















£ 


Color. 


05 


"3 


Grain. 


Hardness. 


Remarks. 
















m 




5 


fi 








1 


red 


l 


8.82 


coarse 


hard 




2 


" 


l 


8. S3 


fine 


" 





3 


" 


l 


8.S2 


coarse 


very soft 





4 


" 


l 


S.S3 


very fine 


medium 





5 


yellow 


3 


8.40 


coarse 


Lard 


blow-holes. 


6 




2 


S.25 


very fine, homo- 
geneous 


" 





7 




3 


S.5S 


fine, not homo- 
geneous 


very brittle 





S 


red 


1 


S.SS 


very fine 


hard 


burnt. 


9 


" 


1 


8. SO 


coarse 


soft 


suitable for 
printing. 


10 


yellow 


2 


S.15 


very fine [ous 


hard 


very unequal. 


11 


" 


3 


S.45 


coarse, homogene- 


" 





12 


" 


3 


S.oO 


fiue, not very 
homogeneous 


very brittle 


manv blow- 
holes (1S3.3). 


13 


red 


1 


— 


— — 


— 


very good. 


14 


■' 


1 


s.ro 


fine 


hard 


bad. 


15 


yellow 


3 


8.35 


" 


" 


very good. 


16 


" 


3 


S.20 


" 


" 


blow-holes. 


17 


" 


2 


8.10 


fine, homogeneous 


" 


very bad. 


IS 
19 
20 


red 


1 


s.eo 


fine 


" 


good. 


yellow 


2 


8.20 


coarse, not very 


soft 













homogeneous 






21 


" 


2 


S.15 


finp, homogeneous 


hard 





22 


" 


2 


8.22 


middling 


soft 





23 


red 


1 


8. So 


fine 


hard 





24 


yellow 


2 


— 


— — 


— 





25 


gray- 
yellow 


3 








attacked by 
colors. 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 



377 



Table II. 



No. of the 


Copper. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Zinc. 


Remarks. 


samples. 














3 


99.11 


0.05 


0.12 


0.57 






4 


99.16 


0.02 


0.12 


0.58 


some aluminium. 




8 


99.13 


03 


0.19 


0.45 


some aluminium and sulphur. 


® 


9 


99 03 


0.03 


0.12 


0.60 


(C « n 


p. 


1 


99.93 


traces 


0.14 


0.67 


<( <• (« 


o 


2 


99 67 


" 


0.07 


— 


(I <i It 


O 


14 


99.40 


" 


0.48 


— 






18 


99.84 


u 


traces 


— 






23 


99.52 




— 


— 






6 


60.33 


0.«>3 


0.68 


3S.68 


1 




10 


61.70 


0.08 


0.64 


37 51 




03 


20 


64.41 


0.21 


2.S6 


31.88 




h 


22 . 


68.60 





0.39 


30.53 




ra 


21 


5S.25 


— 


0.43 


41.02 






17 


77.68 


traces 


0.42 


41.41 
















all contain traces of arsenic 
y and iron. 




11 


74.51 


2.80 


2.18 


19.85 




12 


76.96 


2.55 


1.S8 


17.83 







7 


77.63 


2.58 


1.94 


17.16 




£» 


5 


74.12 


2.37 


2.22 


20.59 




-2 


15 


79.42 


4.17 


1.23 


14.49 




3 


16 


72 15 


3.27 


1.71 


22.16 






24 


70.40 





0.60 


28.0 






25 


15.0 


— 


— 


84.0 


J 



Alloy for silvering. — This alloy consists of tin 80 
parts, lead 18, silver 2 ; or tin 90 parts, lead 9, silver 1. 
Melt the tin, and when the bath is lustrous white add 
the granulated lead and stir the mixture with a pine 
stick ; then add the silver and stir again. Increase the 
fire for a short time until the surface of the bath as- 
sumes a light yellow color, then stir thoroughly and 
cast the alloy into bars. The operation of silvering is 
executed as follows : — 

The article, for instance a knife blade, is dipped in a 
solution of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, rinsed in 
clean water, dried, rubbed with a piece of soft leather 

32* 



378 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

or dry sponge, and then exposed in a muffle five minutes 
to a temperature of 158° to 176° F. The effect of this 
treatment is to render the surface of the iron or steel 
porous. With iron not very good and coarsely porous 
the silvering process is difficult to execute. With steel, 
however, the process is easy ; the article heated to about 
140° F. is dipped into the alloy melted in a crucible 
over a moderate fire. The bath, which must be com- 
pletely liquid, is stirred with a pine or poplar stick. 
The surface of the bath should show a fine silver-white 
color. One to two minutes dipping suffices for a knife 
blade. When taken from the bath the article is dipped 
into cold water, or, if necessary, hardened and tempered 
in the usual manner. It is then rubbed dry and pol- 
ished without heating. 

Articles thus treated have the appearance of silver 
and also possess the sound of silver, and resist oxidation 
in the air. To protect them from the action of acid 
liquids they are first dipped in an amalgam bath of 69 
parts of mercury, 39 parts of tin, and 1 part of silver ; 
then, while hot, in melted silver, and electroplated with 
silver. This method of silvering is claimed to be very 
durable and not costly. 

Robertson alloy for filling teeth. — Gold 1 part, silver 3, 
tin 2. First melt the gold and silver in a crucible, and 
at the moment of fusion add the tin. The alloy, when 
cold, may be finely pulverized. Equal quantities of the 
powder and mercury are kneaded together in the palm 
of the hand to form a paste for filling teeth. 

American sleigh-bells. — These bells excelling in beauty, 
fine tone, and small specific gravity are manufactured by 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 379 

fusing together 10 parts of nickel and 60 of copper. 
When this alloy has become cold, add 10 parts of zinc 
and two-fifths part of aluminium, fuse the mass and 
allow it to cool ; then remelt it with the addition of two- 
fifths part of mercury and 60 parts of melted copper. 

Alloy for casting small articles. — Fuse a mixture of 79 
per cent, of cast-iron, 19.50 of tin, and 1.50 of lead. 
This alloy has a beautiful appearance, fills the mould 
completely, and is therefore well adapted for casting 
small articles. It is malleable to a certain extent. 

Arnold's iron alloy. — A compact and malleable iron 
alloy capable of a fine polish is obtained by melting to- 
gether 100 parts of crude cast-iron, 1 of soda, 1 of 
copper, | of tin, J of antimony, and 5 of zinc. The 
material is claimed to be especially adapted for ship's 
screws, it resisting the corrosive action of sea-water re- 
markably well. By omitting the soda and decreasing 
the quantity of zinc a softer kind of iron is obtained, 
and a harder material by using a greater quantity of 
soda and zinc and decreasing the proportion of copper. 

Lemarquand's non-oxidizable alloy. — Copper 750 parts, 
nickel 140, black oxide of cobalt 20, tin in sticks 18, 
zinc 72. The metals must be pure. 

3£arlie's non-oxidizable alloy. — Iron 10 parts, nickel 
35, brass 25, tin 20, zinc 10. Articles prepared from 
this alloy are heated to a white heat and dipped into a 
mixture of sulphuric acid 60 parts, nitric acid 10, hy- 
drochloric acid 5, and water 25. 



380 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



SOLDERING. 
XL, 

SOLDERS IN GENERAL. 

The so-called solders are alloys in the true sense of 
the word, but being used for special purposes will have 
to be separately described. Soldering is the process of 
uniting the edges or surfaces of metals by means of a 
more fusible metal which, being melted upon each sur- 
face, serves, partly by chemical attraction and partly by 
cohesive force, to bind them together. There is a great 
variety of solders known by the names of hard, soft, 
spelter, silver, white, gold, copper, tin, plumbers'', and many 
others ; they may, however, be broadly distinguished as 
hard solders and soft solders. The former fuse only at a 
red heat, and are therefore only suitable for metals and 
alloys which will stand that temperature; the soft 
solders fuse at a comparatively low temperature, and 
may consequently be used for nearly all metals. Nearly 
all the principal metals take part in the composition of 
solder. The metals to be united may be either the same 
or dissimilar, but the uniting metal must always have 
an affinity for both, and should agree with them as 
nearly as possible in hardness and malleability. When 
this is the case, as when zinc solder is used to unite two 
pieces of brass, or of copper, or one piece of each, or 
when lead or pewter is united with soft solder, the work 



SOLDERS IN GENERAL. 381 

may be bent or rolled almost as freely as if it had not 
been soldered. But when copper or brass is united by 
soft solder, the joint is very liable to be broken by 
accidental violence or the blow of a hammer. In all 
soldering processes the following conditions must be ob- 
served : 1. The surfaces to be united must be bright, 
smooth, and chemically clean. 2. The contact of air 
must be excluded during the soldering, because it is apt 
to oxidize one or other of the surfaces and thus to pre- 
vent the formation of an alloy at the points of union. 
This latter object is effected by means of fluxes, which 
will be referred to later on. 

The process called autogenous soldering takes place by 
the fusion of the two edges of metals themselves with- 
out interposing another metallic alloy as a bond of 
union. The process is possible with the majority of 
metals and alloys, even the refractory ones, and though 
it does not actually belong here, the subject being alloys, 
it will be briefly described. The union of the metals is 
accomplished by directing a jet of burning oxyhydrogen 
gas from a small movable beak upon the two surfaces 
or edges to be soldered together. Metals thus joined 
together are much less apt to crack asunder at the line 
of union by differences of temperature, flexibility, etc., 
than when the common soldering process is employed. 
This method of soldering is especially of great advantage 
in chemical works for joining the edges of sheet lead 
for sulphuric acid chambers and concentrating pans, 
because any solder containing tin would soon corrode. 

All soldered work should be kept under motionless 
restraint for a period, as any movement of the parts 



382 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

during the transition of the solder from the fluid to the 
solid state disturbs its crystallization and the strict unity 
of the several parts. In hard soldering it is frequently 
necessary to bind the work together in their respective 
position ; this is done with soft iron binding wire, which 
for delicate jewelry work is exceedingly fine, and for 
stronger work is Y \j or g 1 ^- inch in diameter ; it is passed 
around the work in loops, the ends of which are twisted 
together with the pliers. 

In soft soldering the binding wire is scarcely ever 
used, as, from the moderate and local application of the 
heat, the hands may in general be freely used in retain- 
ing most of the work in position during the process. 
Thick work is handled with pliers or tongues whilst 
being soft soldered, and the two surfaces to be united 
are often treated much like glue joints, if we conceive 
the wood to be replaced by metal and the glue by solder, 
they being frequently coated or tinned whilst separated, 
and then rubbed together to distribute and exclude the 
greater part of the solder. 



XLI. 

SOFT SOLDERS. 

The soft solders serve chiefly for soldering tin-plate, 
sheet-zinc, and kitchen utensils of sheet-brass. Their 
melting points lie between 284° and 464° F. For 
special purposes the two previously mentioned alloys 
of cadmium and bismuth, with as low a melting point 



SOFT SOLDERS. 



383 



as 140° F., would be very suitable, but their costliness 
prevents their general use. 

Pure tin is the simplest of all soft solders, and is 
frequently used for soldering fine utensils of tin. Abso- 
lutely pure tin should, however, only be used, as the 
presence of foreign metals, especially that of iron, con- 
siderably increases the melting point. Tin solder is 
generally employed in the form of semi-cylindrical bars 
or very thin prisms. For soldering very delicate work 
tin-foil of very pure tin is frequently used. The sur- 
faces being thoroughly cleansed, and, if necessary, nicely 
fitted together with a file, a piece of tin-foil is placed 
between them. They are then firmly bound together 
with binding wire and heated in the flame of a lamp or 
a Bunsen burner, or in the fire until the tin melts and 
unites with both surfaces. Joints carefully made may 
be united in this way so neatly as to be invisible. 

The soft solder most frequently used consists of 2 
parts of tin and 1 of lead. A cheaper solder is formed 
by increasing the proportion of lead; 1J tin to 1 lead is 
the most fusible solder, unless bismuth be added. The 
following table gives the composition of some of these 
solders with their points of fusion : — 





Parts. 






Parts. 








Melts at 
degrees F. 


No. 




Melts at 


No. 










degrees F. 




Tin. 


Lead. 






Tin. 


Lead. 




1 




25 


5 5 SO 


7 


H 




3340 


2 




10 


541 


8 


2 




340 


3 




5 


511 


9 


3 




356 


4 




3 


482 


10 


4 




365 


5 




2 


441 


11 


5 




378 


6 




1 


370 


12 


6 




381 



384 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

For ordinary plumber's work the solders from 4 to 8 
are used with tallow as a flux. For lead and tin-pipes 
No. 8 is used with a mixture of resin and sweet-oil as 
a flux. For Britannia metal ~No. 8 is used with chloride 
of zinc or resin as a flux. It can also be used for sol- 
dering cast-iron and steel, with common resin or sal 
ammoniac as a flux. The same solder can also be used 
for copper and many of its alloys, such as brass, gun- 
metal, etc., sal ammoniac, chloride of zinc, or resin being 
used as a flux. The solder No. 5 is what is called in 
England plumbers' sealed solder, which is assayed and 
stamped by an officer of the " Plumbers' Company." 

The preparation of soft solder is very simple. The 
tin is first melted, a porcelain or stoneware vessel being 
best adapted for the purpose, as with the use of iron 
vessels there is danger of the absorption of iron by the 
solder. The tin being completely melted the lead is 
added, and the two metals are thoroughly combined 
by stirring. The finished alloy is then poured into 
suitable moulds. 

Many manufacturers simply pour the finished solder 
in a fine stream upon a stone-slab, and subsequently 
break the sheet thus obtained into small pieces. It is, 
however, recommended to cast the solder in moulds, as 
it is more handy for working in this shape, and besides 
its consumption can be better controlled. The most 
suitable shape is that of thin bars about 7f by 1 J inches 
and J to J inch thick. 

Experts judge the quality of a solder by the appear- 
ance of the surface of the cast pieces, and attach special 
value to its being radiated-crystalline, which is techni- 



HARD SOLDERS. 385 

call j called the "flower" and should have a stronger 
lustre than the dull ground of a dead silver color. If, 
as it sometimes happens, the solder shows a uniform 
gray-white color, it contains too little tin and it is best 
to remelt it with an addition of a small quantity of tin. 

Bismuth solder is composed of bismuth 1 part, tin 1, 
and lead 1. It melts at 284° F. As will be seen from 
the composition it is much dearer than ordinary solder 
on account of the content of bismuth. It is, however, 
well adapted for certain purposes, as it is very thinly 
fluid and considerably harder than ordinary solder. 

As previously mentioned every readily fusible, metal- 
lic composition can be used for soldering and consequently 
the fusible alloys of cadmium and of bismuth might be 
classed with the soft solders. They are, however, only 
used in exceptional cases on account of their costliness. 



XLIL 

HARD SOLDERS. 

Under this name very different alloys are used, their 
composition depending principally on that of the metals 
or alloys to be soldered. Though hard solders are found 
in commerce, many large manufacturers prefer to make 
their own solders in order to have them entirely suitable 
for the purpose they are intended for. According to 
the metals or alloys for which they are to be used, hard 
solders are divided into brass-solder for soldering brass, 
copper, etc., argentan-soldcr for German silver, gold and 
33 



386 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

silver solders for gold and silver, etc., and this division 
will be retained here. 

Brass-solder is the most fusible of all hard solders and 
is prepared according to various proportions. It is 
generally made by melting a good quality of brass 
together with a determined quantity of pure zinc, or 
sometimes adding some tin to the mixture. Such sol- 
ders are composed of brass 8 parts, zinc 1. A somewhat 
more refractory composition consists of brass 6 parts, 
zinc 1, and tin 1. And a still more refractory one of 
brass 6 parts, zinc 1, tin 1, copper 1. The latter solder 
is the so-called hard brass-solder and is used for solder- 
ing iron and copper. In speaking of the respective 
alloys attention was drawn to the fact that with an in- 
crease in the content of tin the color of the brass passes 
from golden yellow more and more into gray, and that 
the ductility decreases at a corresponding rate. Varieties 
of brass very rich in tin are no longer ductile, but pos- 
sess a considerable degree of brittleness. By adding to 
such compositions tin, their hardness and brittleness are 
still further increased, and mixtures are thus obtained 
which, according to their peculiar color, are designated 
as yellow, half -yellow or half-white, and white solder. 

Regarding the quantity of metals to be added to the 
brass it has to be taken into consideration that solders 
containing much tin, though quite thinly fluid, acquire 
such a degree of brittleness as to break in most cases on 
bending the soldered place. 

In making solders, great care should be taken to secure 
uniformity of composition ; they are often found in com- 
merce in a granulated form or cast m ingots. The most 



HARD SOLDERS. 387 

suitable mode of their preparation is as follows : Per- 
fectly homogeneous sheet-brass is used, it being prefer- 
able to cast brass, as by rolling it has acquired greater 
homogeneousness. To prepare the brass for the manu- 
facture of solders directly by melting together copper 
and zinc, is not advisable, as the unavoidable loss of 
zinc during the operation can never be exactly deter- 
mined. By using finished brass it can, however, be 
readily melted down and compounded, if necessary, with 
zinc, without any sensible volatilization of the latter. 

The brass is first melted in a crucible at as strong a 
heat as possible, and when thoroughly fused the entire 
quantity of zinc to be used in the manufacture of the 
solder, and which has previously been strongly heated, 
is added. The contents of the crucible are then vigor- 
ously stirred and after a few minutes poured out. The 
granulation of the solder is effected by pouring the 
melted metal from the crucible or ladle through a wet 
broom or from a considerable height into cold water. 
The size of the grains thus obtained varies within wide 
limits, and in order to obtain a uniform product the 
grains have to be passed through different-sized sieves 
and all excessively large pieces remelted. 

According to another method, the melted metal is 
poured into a shallow vessel filled with cold water in 
which lies a large cannon ball so as partially to project 
from the fluid. The metal falling in a fine stream upon 
the cannon ball flies into small pieces of nearly uniform 
size, which fall into the water where they quickly 
harden. 

The finest and most beautiful product is, however, 



388 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

obtained in the following manner : At some distance 
above the level of the water serving for the collection 
of the grains a horizontal pipe is arranged which is con- 
nected either with a powerful forcing-pump or a water 
reservoir situated at a higher level. Before pouring out 
the melted metal the cock on the pipe is opened so that 
the jet of water issuing from the pipe is thrown in a 
horizontal direction over the vessel containing the water ; 
upon this jet of water the stream of melted metal is 
poured. The greater the force with which the water is 
hurled from the pipe the greater also the force with 
which the stream of melted metal is divided, and by 
this means it is possible, within certain limits, to obtain 
grains of a determined size. As will be seen from the 
above description the scattering of the stream of melted 
metal is based upon the same principle as that employed 
in diffusing fragrant liquids in the air. 

Casting being finished the grains of solder deposited 
on the bottom of the vessel are collected . and quickly 
dried to prevent them from becoming covered with a 
layer of oxide, which would exert a disturbing influence 
in soldering. 

The following table shows the centesimal composition 
of various kinds of solder which have stood a practical 
test for various purposes ;— 



HARD SOLDERS. 



389 





Copper. 


Zinc. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Very refractory 


57.94 


42.06 








ti a 


58.33 


41.67 


— 


— 


Refractory 


50.00 


50.00 


— 


— 


Readily fusible 


33.34 


66.66 


— 


— 


Half-white, readily fusible 


44.00 


49.90 


3.30 


1.20 


White .... 


57.44 


27.98 


14 58 


— 


Malleable solder 


72.00 


18.00 


4.00 


— 


Hard solder according to Volk 


53.30 


46.70 


— 


— 



Since these solders, as previously mentioned, are 
generally prepared by melting together brass and zinc 
we give in the following table the proportions of brass 
(in sheet) and zinc required for the purpose. 













Parts. 




Brass. 


Zinc. 


Tiu. 


Very refractory 


85.42 


12.58 





c < t < 








7.00 


1.00 


— 


Refractory 








3.00 


1.00 


— 


" 










4.00 


1.00 


— 


Readily fusible 










5.00 
5.00 


2.00 
4.00 


— 


Half-white 










12.00 


5.00 


1.00 


u a 










44.00 


20.00 


2.00 


White 










40.00 


2.00 


8.00 


" 










22.00 


2.00 


4.00 


<< 










18.00 


12.00 


30.00 


Very ductile 










78.25 


17.25 


— 


For gi idlers 










81.12 


18.88 


— 



PrechtVs brass solders. 








Parts 






Copper. 


Zinc. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Yellow, refractory . . 53.30 


43.10 


1.30 


0.30 


Half- white, readily fusible 44.00 


49.90 


3.30 


1.20 


White .... 57.44 


27.98 


14,58 


— 


33* 









390 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Brass-solders containing lead are very rarely used at 
the present tirue, these containing besides copper, zinc, 
and perhaps a small quantity of tin being generally 
preferred. 

Argentan-solder. — The metallic mixture to which this 
term is applied, not only serves for soldering articles 
of argentan or German silver, but, on account of its 
refractory character and considerable tenacity, is gene- 
rally used for soldering articles where the joints are to be 
especially solid ; it is very frequently employed for sol- 
dering fine articles of steel and iron. 

As regards its centesimal composition, argentan-solder 
is a variety of German silver especially rich in zinc, 
which must show considerable brittleness, so that it can 
be mechanically converted into a fine powder. The 
proportions according to which the solder is composed 
vary, and depend chiefly on the composition of the arti- 
cles of German silver to be soldered with it. Manufac- 
turers of German silver articles especially rich in nickel, 
and consequently more difficult to fuse, use, as a rule, a 
somewhat more refractory solder than those manufac- 
turing alloys which contain but little nickel, and which 
are consequently more fusible. 

As argentan-solder is not only employed for soldering 
German silver, but also for articles of steel, efforts 
have been made to prepare compositions answering all 
demands, of which the following have stood a practical 
test :— 

a. Readily fusible argentan-solder. — Copper 35 parts, 
zinc 57, nickel 8. 



HARD SOLDERS. 391 

b. Less fusible argentan-solder (especially adapted 
for iron and steel). — Copper 38 parts, zinc 50, nickel 
12. The alloys are melted in the same manner as 
German silver and cast in thin plates, which, while 
still hot, are broken into pieces and converted into as 
fine a powder as possible in an iron mortar previously 
heated. If the alloy is readily converted into powder, 
it contains too much zinc, or if with difficulty, too 
little zinc. But in either case it does not possess the 
properties of argentan-solder of the proper proportions, 
and nothing is left but to remelt it. Hence it is recom- 
mended first to ascertain by small samples whether the 
alloy has the correct composition. For this purpose a 
small quantity of the melted metal is taken from the 
crucible by means of a ladle and poured upon a cold 
stone and then tested as to its behavior in the mortar ; 
if it can be readily pulverized, it indicates an excess of 
zinc. 

This excess of zinc can be removed by keeping the 
alloy in flux for some time with the crucible uncovered, 
whereby a considerable quantity of zinc volatilizes, and, 
after continuing the heating for some time, an alloy 
showing the required content of zinc is obtained. This 
method is, however, expensive, as it consumes time and 
a considerable quantity of fuel. It is, therefore, more 
suitable to throw small pieces of strongly heated Ger- 
man silver into the melted alloy and effect an intimate 
mixture of the metals by stirring with a wooden rod. 

If a sample of the alloy cannot be pulverized or 
broken into pieces by vigorous blows with a hammer, it 
is a sure proof that zinc is wanting. This defect can be 



392 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

more readily corrected than the preceding one, it being 
only necessary to throw a small quantity of zinc into 
the crucible and distribute it as uniformly as possible in 
the melted mass. After repeating the addition of zinc 
and testing once, or at the utmost twice, a solder answer- 
ing all requirements will be obtained. 

Argentan-solder has a pure white color and strong 
lustre. It melts at quite a high temperature and for 
this reason is well adapted for soldering, for instance, 
lamps used for the production of high temperatures (so- 
called Berzelius lamps) which were formerly much used 
in chemical laboratories, but which at the present are 
generally replaced by gas. 



XLIII. 

SOLDERS CONTAINING PRECIOUS METALS. 

Solders containing precious metals — gold and silver 
— are chiefly used in the manufacture of gold and silver 
wares, but are also employed for soldering articles of 
cast-iron, copper, bronze, etc., and by manufacturers of 
fine mechanical works. Generally these solders consist 
of an alloy of silver and copper, or silver ami brass, for 
silver-solder; sometimes a small quantity of tin is 
added, which lowers the melting point and gives a soft 
silver-solder. The composition of silver-solders varies 
according to the purpose for which they are to be used. 
In the following the compounds employed in the pre- 
paration of the solders most frequently used are given. 



SOLDERS CONTAINING PRECIOUS METALS. 393 

Ordinary hard silver-solder. — Copper 1 part, silver 4. 
This alloy is quite tenacious and very ductile. It is pre- 
ferably used for soldering articles to be worked under 
the hammer or stamped. 

Brass silver-solder. — The alloy known under this name 
shows also considerable hardness and ductility, and has 
a somewhat whiter color than the preceding. It is pre- 
pared by melting together a fine quality of brass with 
silver and is consequently an alloy of silver, copper, and 
zinc. It is composed of sheet-brass 1 part and silver 1. 

Soft silver-solder. — The solders given above have a 
comparatively high melting point. To facilitate the 
working of smaller articles, solders with a lower melting 
point are used, which is attained by the addition of a 
small quantity of tin, which must, however, be very 
pure. An excellent soft silver-solder is composed of 
sheet-brass 32 parts, silver 32, tin 2. 

Hard silvw-solders : a. Very hard. — Silver 40 parts, 
copper 10. 

b. Hard. — Silver 40 parts, copper 2, brass 18. 

e. Middling hard. — Silver 40 parts, copper 10, brass 
40, tin 10. 

Soft silver-solders : a. For after-soldering, i. e., for sol- 
dering articles that have parts already soldered, silver 
20 parts, bfass 10. 

b. Quick running and brittle. — Silver 25 parts, brass 
30, zinc 10. 

The last composition is frequently used for soldering 
silver-alloys with a very small content of silver. In 
consequence of the great brittleness of such solder the 
soldered places readily spring open. 



394 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Silver-solder for east-iron. — -Silver 20 parts, copper 30, 
zinc 10. 

Silver-solder for steel. — Silver 30 parts, copper 10. 

For soldering articles of silver the alloy itself of 
which they are manufactured is in many cases used. 
But the manipulation is somewhat troublesome on ac- 
count of the difficulty of keeping the places to be sol- 
dered clean, and the pieces must be very nicely fitted 
together. The solder, in this case, is used in the form 
of fine shavings and is melted by means of a keen 
flame. For small articles the flame of a blow-pipe suf- 
fices as a rule, but for larger articles it is best to use a 
special small blowing apparatus, by means of which the 
solder can be applied very uniformly. It offers the 
further advantage of leaving both hands free, which is 
of importance for turning the vessel in front of the 
flame and for the application of the solder. 

Gold-solders. — In color and fusibility the solder used 
for articles of gold should approach as nearly as pos- 
sible the alloy of which they are made ; the smaller the 
content of gold in the alloy to be soldered the more 
fusible the alloy used for soldering must be. Gold-sol- 
ders consist in most cases of alloys containing, besides 
gold, copper and silver; by adding, as is sometimes 
done, small quantities of zinc, solders with a compara- 
tively low melting point are obtained, the use of which 
has, however, the disadvantage of the soldered places 
frequently acquiring a black color during the subsequent 
coloring of the articles. 

Manufacturers use for articles of gold of various 
fineness solders which must correspond in regard to 



SOLDERS CONTAINING PRECIOUS METALS. 



395 



color and fusibility with the alloy to be soldered. The 
following table gives the composition of some gold- 
solders in general use : — 







Par 


s. 






Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper 


Zinc. 


Hard solder for fineness 750 


9.0 


2.0 


1.0 




Soft " " " 750 


12.0 


7.0 


3.0 


— 


Solder ■ " " 583 


3.0 


2.0 


1.0 


— 


583 


2.0 


0.5 


0.5 


— 


for less fineness than 583 


1.0 


2.0 


1.0 


— 


583 


1.0 


2.0 


— 


— 


583 


1.0 


— 


2.0 


— 


" readily fusible 


11.94 


54.74 


28.17, 


5.01 


" " " for yellow 










gold .... 


10.0 


5.0 


— 


1.0 



Bolder for enamelled work. — Articles which after being 
finished are to be decorated with enamel cannot be sol- 
dered with every kind of gold solder, since many 
enamels require so high a degree of heat for fusion as to 
endanger the durability of the soldered joints. Hence 
solders with a high melting point have to be used. The 
following compositions will be found to answer all re- 
quirements : — 

a. Refractory solder. — Gold 74 parts, silver 18. 

b. More readily fusible solder. — Gold (750 fineness) 
32 parts, silver 9, copper 3. 

Fine gold-solder. — For soldering platinum vessels to 
be used in laboratories chemically pure gold was form- 
erly used, as alloys of gold and silver are attacked by 
sulphuric acid, etc., at a boiling heat and even below 
that temperature. Soldering with fine gold is, however, 



396 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

very difficult, as gold requires a very high temperature 
to become fluid, and even then runs so thick as to re- 
quire special skill for the production of a perfect joint. 
In modern times soldering with gold has been almost 
entirely abandoned, the pieces of platinum being now 
directly united with the assistance of the flame of oxy- 
hydrogen gas. 

Aluminium-solder. — This solder is frequently used by 
dentists for joining together the separate metallic por- 
tions of sets of artificial teeth. Besides aluminium it 
generally contains gold and silver, though in the place 
of the latter platinum and copper are now frequently 
used. In the following we give two receipts for pre- 
paring aluminium-solder : — 

I. Gold 3 parts, platinum 0.1, silver 2, aluminium 10. 

II. Gold 5 parts, silver 1, copper 1, aluminium 20. 
Alloys containing precious metals must, on account 

of their costliness, be brought into such shape that as 
little as possible be wasted in using them. In most 
cases they are cast into thin rods and rolled between 
steel rolls into thin sheet, which is cut with the shears 
or pressed into thin strips, the so-called " pallions," or 
filed into dust, which is no doubt the best method of 
using them. 



TREATMENT OF VARIOUS SOLDERS, ETC. 397 



XLIV. 

TREATMENT OF THE VARIOUS SOLDERS IN SOL- 
DERING AND SOLDERING FLUIDS, ETC. 

Solders adhere only to bright and clean metal, and 
the surfaces of the places to be soldered must conse- 
quently be subjected to a special treatment in order to 
remove any oxide, grease, etc. 

Many substances are used for this purpose in the 
practice, the most important of which will be briefly 
discussed in the following : According to their behavior 
the chemical preparations used in soldering can be 
divided into several groups, namely, in those which 
produce a bright surface of the metals by dissolving the 
layer of oxide upon it. 

Dilute mineral acids are generally used for pickling 
the places to be soldered, hydrochloric acid being chiefly 
employed for the purpose. By touching the place where 
the solder is to be applied with a brush dipped in dilute 
hydrochloric acid, the oxide is at once dissolved and the 
melted solder spreads rapidly over the surface. Hydro- 
chloric acid is used upon zinc as well as upon tin. The 
combination formed by the solution of zinc in hydro- 
chloric acid is, however, very volatile in the heat im- 
parted to the metal by the soldering iron, and a consid- 
erable quantity of vapors injurious to health, and also 
to the metal of the soldering iron are evolved. It is, 
therefore, recommended to provide the workshop, where 
much of such soldering is done, with a thorough venti- 
lation. 

34 



398 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Instead of dilute hydrochloric acid the so-called sol- 
dering fluid is used in many places. It is prepared by 
dividing a certain quantity of hydrochloric acid into two 
equal parts, compounding one of these parts with pieces 
of zinc and leaving it in contact with an excess of it 
until the development of gas has ceased. The other 
portion of hydrochloric acid is compounded with car- 
bonate of ammonia until no more effervescence due to 
the escape of carbonic acid takes place. The two liquids 
are then combined. In place of the saturated solution 
of carbonate of ammonia a solution of sal ammoniac in 
water can be used, equal volumes of the zinc solution 
and sal ammoniac being in this case taken for the prep- 
aration of the soldering fluid. 

For brass articles ammonia alone is frequently used, 
which acts by reducing the layer of oxide upon the sur- 
face of the metals. As fluxes for coarser work turpen- 
tine, colophony, and a mixture of sal ammoniac and 
olive oil are also used. The composition known under 
the name of " soldering fat" may be prepared by intro- 
ducing powdered colophony in melted and strongly 
heated tallow and adding sal ammoniac. The mass is 
stirred until homogeneous and then allowed to solidify. 

For hard soldering, substances are used which dissolve 
the layer of oxide, and form with it a glass -like combi- 
nation which is melted by the heat and forced out by 
pressing the soldered pieces together. The best-known 
agent of this kind is borax, which readily dissolves the 
oxides in consequence of the excess of boric acid it con- 
tains. For higher degrees of temperature readily fusi- 
ble glass finely pulverized also does good service, the 



TREATMENT OF VARIOUS SOLDERS, ETC. 399 

fused glass dissolving the oxides. A solution of water- 
glass also answers the purpose and is frequently used in 
hard soldering. 

Hard-soldering fluid. — The composition known under 
this name consists of a solution of phosphoric acid in 
alcohol. It is prepared by dissolving phosphorus in 
nitric acid, evaporating the solution to expel any excess 
of nitric acid and mixing the syrupy mass with an equal 
quantity of strong alcohol. The phosphoric acid dis- 
solves the layer of oxide, the combination formed melt- 
ing under the soldering iron, and is displaced by the 
melted solder which now comes in contact with the 
bright metallic surface. The hard-soldering fluid can 
be advantageously used in soldering copper as well as 
brass, bronze and argentan. The phosphate of ammonia 
or of soda is also used in soldering copper. 

Still more suitable as a flux in hard soldering is the 
use of quartz-sand and some decomposed soda. Quartz- 
sand consists of silicic acid and soda of sodium carbon- 
ate. Both these substances on coming together in a 
strong heat combine to sodium silicate, which, if silicic 
acid be present in excess, dissolves the oxides. For 
very high temperatures, as for instance in welding iron, 
the use of pure quartz-sand by itself suffices. By 
strewing the sand upon the red-hot iron, placing the 
other piece of iron also red hot upon it, and uniting 
both by vigorous blows of the hammer, the combination 
of the silicic acid with the ferric oxide formed upon the 
surfaces of the pieces of metals is pressed out in a fluid 
form, and the two surfaces of iron having become 
bright will unite. 



APPENDIX 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 

In many cases alloys are provided with a coating, the 
object being either to increase their beauty or to protect 
them from oxidation and discoloration. Articles of ordi- 
nary alloys, which are not to be exposed to the fire, are 
frequently only provided with a coating of a lacquer con- 
sisting usually of a solution of shellac in alcohol, that 
made with "-stick lac" being, as a rule, the best. The 
lacquer may be colored by any permanent transparent al- 
coholic solution giving the desired tint. Dragon's blood, 
red sanders, or annotto is generally used for red, and 
gamboge, sandarac, saffron, turmeric, or aloes for yellow ; 
these coloring matters may be replaced by aniline colors. 
In applying the lacquer care should be had to keep the 
article to be lacquered warm and of uniform temperature, 
and to perform the work as quickly and smoothly as pos- 
sible. Keep the lacquers in well-stoppered bottles, best 
of opaque material. For use pour them into dishes of 
convenient size, and apply them with a thin, wide flat 
brush. The following is Graham's* table of lacquers: — 

* Brass-Founder's Manual, London, 1887. 
34* 



402 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 















a 


. 


<D 


































'ji 


3 






























% 


a 


'~ 


a* 


























S 

33 


a 


■z 


ft, 


c3 

> 


* 


13 

O 

o 


















•- 

IB 

s 


ce 


2 


"3 

.a 

53 


o 


U 
33 

C 


3 

o 


2 

S 

- 


ft 
.2 


3 
■j. 
"a 
o 


o 
o 


u 

T3 


u 

S 

s 


it 


s 




3 
< 


33 

— 




"3 




- 




- 






B 


c3 




S 




= 


■■= 


ft 


a 




p 






c3 


— 


>» 


a, 


= 








s 


«3 


03 


33 


S3 




fc 


oz. 


S 


a 


l»t. 


oz. 


dr. 


OZ. 


□Q 

pt. 


dr. 


< 

dr. 


gr. 


dr. 


C5 
dr. 


•dr. 


dr. 


CO 

dr. 






dr.' dr. 




1 4 




1 




— 












— 










Strong simple. 


2 1 




1 

















— 










Simple pale. 


8 l 


— — 


1 


— 


— 








— 


— 


— 


— 


1 


— 


3 


— 


Fiue pale. 


4 1 




1 

















1 


1 


2 





— 


" 


■'> ] 


— — 


2 


— 


— 


— 





1 


1 








16 


4 




s 


" 


6 2 


— — 


2 


— 


— 








1 


8 


— 


32 


— 


— 




8 


Plate gold. 


7 2 


— — 


1 


— 


- 





— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


2 


— 


4 




1'ale yellow. 


S o 


— — 


3 


30 










— 























" 


9 — 


— — 


— 


— 


z 





1 





1 


— 


4 











— 


Fall yellow. 


10 3 


— — 


1 


— 


— 








— 


2 


.*- 


16 





2 





— 


Gold. 


11 3 


— — 


4 


— 


— - 


6 





— 


— 


— 


64 


6 


— 


— 


14 


" 


12 1 


— — 


1 


— 











— 








20 








2 


5 


" 


13 3 


i 


1 








4 






16 










Deep gold. 


34 3 


— — 


1 — 






4 






1 










" 


15 3 




1 — 


30 — 





40 


— 


12 


10 


— 


— 


— 


— 


" 


16 — 










1 


8 


32 














Red. 


17 1 


— — 


— 


— 


— 


1 





S 


24 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


27 


" 


IS 15 


30 30 


6 


— 


— 


— 





20 


— 


— 


60 




10 


— 


— 


Tin lacqner. 


V 


"f 




" 


~r 


1 








4 


1 






~ 


Green, for 
bronze. 



By coating- articles of copper or brass with good fat 
copal lacquer, and heating after drying until the lacquer 
commences to smoke, a coat is obtained which protects the 
articles as well as the tinning against the action of acid 
liquids. 

Articles of copper and bronze exposed for a long time 
to the action of the air acquire a beautiful brown or green 
color, which considerably contributes to their handsome 
appearance. This color is known as Aerugo nobilis 
(noble rust) or patina. 

Though there are many agents by means of which a 
layer of patina can be produced upon the bronze, the 
coating thus obtained cannot compare, as regards beauty 
and durability, with the genuine patina. 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 403 

In order to obtain a coating similar to genuine patina, 
it is recommended to pursue as nearly as possible the same 
course by which the latter is naturally formed. By the 
action of the rain, which always contains salts, though in 
very minute quantity, in solution, the copper is attacked 
and basic salts of copper are formed upon the surface, 
which in the course of time are converted by the action' 
of the carbonic acid of the air into basic copper carbonate. 
The latter has a beautiful green color and is found in 
nature as malachite. But besides this process Others also 
take place upon the surface of the article, especially upon 
that of monuments erected in large cities. The air of the 
latter is constantly charged with certain quantities of sul- 
phur combinations originating partially from the putrefac- 
tion of excrements, etc., in the sewers and partially from 
the combustion of coal containing sulphur. Now copper 
being very sensitive to the action of sulphuretted hydro- 
gen, a coating of black cupric sulphide is consequently 
formed upon the surface of the object, which explains why 
bronze statues erected in large cities frequently turn black. 
Dust and fine particles of soot, which deposit themselves 
especially in the depressions of the objects, further con- 
tribute to their becoming black. Cupric sulphide has, 
however, the property of becoming rapidly converted in 
the air into copper sulphate, from which is again formed 
copper carbonate, or, so to say, a coating of malachite. 
Genuine patina, especially that observed on very antique 
statues, consists, therefore, of a very firmly adhering 
coating of malachite. 

To produce upon a statue a patina like deposit, brush it 
over with a very dilute solution of cupric nitrate to which 
a small tjuantity of common salt solution may be added. 
When the statue is entirely dry, brush it with a fluid con- 



404 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

sisti.ng of 100 parts of weak vinegar, 5 parts of sal am- 
moniac, and 1 part of oxalic acid, and repeat the applica- 
tion after drying. In consequence of this treatment the 
statue in the course of about one week acquires a green- 
brown color resembling that of genuine patina. 

A finer coating, which more closely resembles genuine 
patina, is, however, obtained by dipping the article into 
the solution of cupric nitrate, and placing it in a room 
where a large quantity of carbonic acid is developed, the 
fermenting room of a distillery being especially adapted 
for this purpose, since the high temperature prevailing 
therein promotes the formation of the green coating. The 
progress can in this case be watched from day to day, and 
if in about a week the statue has not acquired the desired 
coloration, the application of the above-mentioned solution 
is repeated, this being continued until the desired tint is 
-obtained. The formation of the patina under these con- 
ditions taking place in a similar manner as in the open 
air, a very beautiful and durable coating is obtained. 

For coating articles of brass with a green patina apply 
a solution prepared by dissolving 10 parts of copper in 20 
parts of nitric acid, diluting the solution with 150 parts 
of vinegar and adding 5 parts of sal ammoniac. Allow 
the articles to stand a few days in the air, and when a 
green coloration has made its appearance, brush them with 
old linseed oil and after a few days rub them with a soft 
woollen rag. If after the application of the linseed oil 
the article readily bronzes, a very beautiful patina will 
soon appear. 

There are several methods of giving an agreeable brown 
patina 'to medals. It is, however, most readily accom- 
plished by heating the medal in a spirit flame and then 
brushing with graphite. To color a number of medals at 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 405 

the same time dissolve 30 parts of verdigris and 30 parts 
of sal ammoniac in 100 parts of vinegar, and add water 
to the solution until a precipitate is no longer formed. 
Place the medals without touching each other upon the 
bottom of a shallow dish, pour the boiling hot solution 
over them, and allow them to remain until they have ac- 
quired the desired tint, which should be a fine brown. 

Copper articles before being brought into commerce re- 
ceive generally a brown coloration, which is produced by 
polishing the articles with pumice stone and then coating 
them with a paste prepared from 5 parts of verdigris, 5 
parts of colcothar, and some weak vinegar. The articles 
are then heated over a coal fire until the coating is entirely 
dry and has acquired a black color. It is then removed 
by washing with water, and the dry articles are rubbed 
bright with a rag greased with a very small quantity of 
tallow. A beautiful brown color is also obtained by ap- 
plying a paste of colcothar and water, heating over a coal 
fire, and removing the coat by rubbing. 

Another method of browning copper consists in rub- 
bing it bright with glass paper, heating strongly over a 
coal fire, and brushing with the following solution : Crys- 
tallized acetate of copper 5 parts, sal ammoniac 7, dilute 
acetic acid 3, distilled water 85. Finally rub the article 
with a solution of 1 part of wax in 4 parts of oil of tur- 
pentine. 

To brown gun-barrels prepare the following solutions : 
(a) Solution of ferric chloride (liq. ferri sesquichlor.) 1.40 
parts, corrosive sublimate 3 parts, blue copperas 3 parts, 
fuming nitric acid 3 parts, and distilled water 80 parts. 
(6) Potassium sulphide 10 parts, distilled water 900. 
Apply solution a twice or three times to the polished 
barrel by means of a sponge or soft brush, placing it after 



406 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

each application in a cool room in order to retard drying, 
and brushing it thoroughly before each new application 
with a steel wire brash (scratch brush). When the barrel 
appears dark enough place it for 20 to 30 minutes in the 
bath b, and after taking it out wash with warm water and 
next with soap water. The dry barrel is finally rubbed 
with linseed-oil varnish. 

For another method the following baths are prepared : 
(a) Fuming nitric acid 2 parts, distilled water 98. (6) 
Nitrate of silver 1 part, distilled water 99. The polished 
barrel is brushed over with a, and treated with the scratch 
brush in the same manner as described in the preceding 
process until a beautiful layer of oxide is formed. It is 
then thoroughly cleansed with the scratch brush and the 
bath b applied until it is sufficiently dark, and finally 
rubbed with linseed-oil varnish. 

The new bronze upon French bronze figures shows all 
shades of pale or clay yellow to red brown and of red to 
dark and black brown. It has a bronze-like appearance 
and adheres tightly to the metal; i. e., is chemically com- 
bined with it. To produce such colorations, solutions of 
sulphur combinations of arsenic and antimony have been 
successfully used. After chasing and pickling the article 
must be subjected to a thorough washing with water, as 
otherwise every trace of acid left behind will later on in 
drying or bronzing penetrate through the seams and pro- 
duce indelible stripes and stains. The drying of the 
article must also be done with the greatest care. For ap- 
plying the solutions a tuft of cotton or a soft, close brush 
is used. The work is best commenced by first applying a, 
dilute solution of ammonium bisulphide as sparingly as 
possible, brushing over a certain limited portion of the 
figure at one time. The quicker and more uniformly this 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 407 

is done the better and more beautiful the bronzing will be. 
After drying the sulphur separated out is brushed off and 
a solution of sulphide of arsenic in ammonia applied, the 
result being a coloration similar to massive gold. The 
oftener this solution of sulphide of arsenic is applied the 
browner the color becomes, and a very dark brown can be 
finally obtained by a solution of sulphide of arsenic in 
ammonium bisulphide. By solutions of sulphide of anti- 
mony in ammonia or ammonium sulphide the coloration 
becomes reddish, it being possible to produce the most 
delicate rose-color as well as the deepest dark red. By 
rubbing certain portions somewhat more strongly a very 
fine metallic lustre is produced. Ammonia or ammonium 
sulphide redissolves the bronzing, so that places not thor- 
oughly colored can be improved, though in such case it is 
better to rub off the entire figure with ammonium sul- 
phide. In the same manner as the solutions in ammonia 
or ammonium sulphide, those in hydrate or sulphide of 
potassium or sodium can also be used, the latter being in 
some cases even more advantageous. By pickling the 
figure the color of the bronze is changed. If a casting of 
bronze or brass is left too long in the pickle, the metal be- 
comes coated with a greenish-gray film, which on rubbing 
with a cloth rag becomes lustrous and adheres firmly. On 
treatment with the above metallic sulphides this coating 
acquires a dull-yellow coloration. 

Graham's bronzing liquids* have a great range of com- 
position and of application as follows : — 

* Brass-Founder's Manual, London, 1887. 



408 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



I. For brass (by simple immersion). 



« 

s 
1 


5 


a 
o 

© 
* 


a 
© 

© 

ID 

C 

o 
e 


H 

o 

hi 

o 

en 

a 

s 

g 
5 


p, 
P. 

o 

o 

<p 

Gi 

K 


a 
« 

© 
© 

IS 
ft 

a 

05 

3 


a 
« 

CD 
S-. 
S3 

© 
CD 

"H 

a 


© 

a 
© 

a 

•* Pi 

oo r* 


a 

c 

a 

GO 
ID 

S3 

© 
(In 


S 

s 

'at 

J 
© 
ft 

© 

"a 
a 
>, 
O 


O 

a 
© " 

2 5 

'3 s 

ri 

r © 
5 ft 


© 

CP 

a S 

a X 

J! 

— © 


© 

00 

o 
® 

Pi 

ED 
O 
ft 

* 




© 
S 
O 




2 

3 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 


pt. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 
1 

I 

1 
1 

1 


dr. 
5 

16 


dr. 



5 


Pt. 

1 
2 


oz, 
1 


30 


oz, 

1 

10 


dr. 

1 


dr. 

6 


oz, 
1 


pt. 

1 


dr. 

z 

2 


dr. 

- 

Te 

16 

z 

— 

20 


dr. 

1 

3 
4 


OZ. 

1 


Brown, and 
every shade 
to black. 

Brown, and 
every shade 
to red. 
(i «< 

Brownish-red. 

Dark brown. 

Yellow to red. 

Orange. 

Olive-green. 

Slate. 

Blue. 

Steel-gray. 

Black. 



In the preparation of No. 5 the liquid must be brought 
to boil and cooled. In using No. 13 the heat of the liquid 
must not be under 180° F. No. 6 is slow in action, some- 
times taking an hour to give good results. The action of 
the others is usually immediate. 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 409 

II. For copper (by simple immersion). 



CD 

s 

3 


S 

~ol 
pt. 


a 




03 
08 

s 

dr. 
5 
5 




So 

a u 

oz. 

1 


a © 

■3 3 

dr. 

2 


5 
,a 
0, 
a 
on 

dr. 
1 


a 

CD 

- 

OS 



CB 

a 
dr. 

1 


DO 

e8 

CD 

oz. 

1 

1 



<o 

a a 

O 03 

3 * 

dr. 

2 




CO 

% 

3 . 
« eg 

2^ 

>* to 

K 
oz. 

1 


■r 
e 
OS 

2 
p 

X 
dr. 

2 




IS 

16 
17 
IS 
19 
20 


Brown, and every shade to black. 
Dark brown-drab. 

Bright red. 

Red, and every shade to black. 

Steel-gray, at 180° F. 



III. For zinc (by simple immersion). 



u 

CD 

X> 

2 

a 


£ 

CD 

i 


a 
© 

S3 
S3 

s 


03 
O 

1.2 

** 

So 




CD ^ 

is 

a w 
xn 


a 




a 


-a 

eg 

CD 



03 

'S 

3 


,a 

el 
CD 

Ph 


5 s ° 

2 a 

OS CO 

2 
-a p. 

"a 




3 . 

2-a 

>>V3 


.5.2 

'w 'tn 

a 3 
£'■3 

03 — 
O 


a 
** 2 

11 

o -rH 




21 
22 
2:> 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 


pt. 
1 
1 

1 
2 

2 

1 
1 


dr. 
5 


dr. 

1 

1 


dr. 
1 

4 

S 


dr. 
1 


oz. 
* 


oz. 

4 


dr 
1 


dr. 

8 


* 


* 


Black. 
Dark gray. 

Green-gray. 
Red (boil). 
Copper color. 

" " (with agita- 
1'urple (boil). [lion.) 



* Made to the consistency of cream. 



To provide articles of brass or bronze with a very lus- 
trous gray or black coating, the tendency of certain me- 
tallic salts of forming gray or black combinations with 



sulphur is utilized. 
35 



For gray dip the article first into a 



410 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

very dilute solution of acetate of lead, or for black into a 
solution of sulphate of copper, and after drying into a hot 
dilute solution of hyposulphite of soda. 

By using the solutions in a very dilute state the articles 
acquire a peculiar, iridescent appearance similar to soap- 
bubbles, and it is also due to the same cause. It is 
well known from the teachings of physics that many 
bodies show, when in very thin layers, the peculiar-color 
phenomenon termed iridescence, and this is also produced 
by a very thin layer of sulphide of lead or sulphide of 
copper. By repeating the treatment of the article in very 
dilute solutions, the iridescence passes into a red, brown- 
ish, or violet coloration. It is impossible to give exact 
proportions for the production of these colors, the success 
of the coloration depending largely on the skill of the 
operator. 

Yery beautiful, but not very permanent, iridescent 
coatings can be produced by placing the bright metal in a 
bath of a heavy metal decomposable by the galvanic cur- 
rent, touching it for a moment with the negative pole of 
the battery, taking it out, rinsing off and drying. The 
metal will show all the colors of the rainbow, but the 
coating is so delicate that it must be protected by imme- 
diately dipping the article after drying into a quick-drying 
varnish. 

There are many means of providing small articles of 
brass with a coating of one color, various liquids being, 
for instance, used to produce determined shades of color 
upon brass buttons. For a pure golden yellow, the 
buttons are dipped for a few seconds in a perfectly 
neutral (absolutely free from acid) solution of acetate of 
copper. A gray-green shade is produced by repeatedly 
clipping them in a dilute solution of chloride of copper 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 411 

and drying after each dipping. A violet tint is obtained 
by heating the buttons to a temperature at which oxida- 
tion does not take place, and rubbing them with a tuft of 
cotton dipped in a solution of antimony in hydrochloric 
acid. 

For the production of the beautiful gold color possessed 
by many French articles of brass the following process 
maybe used: Dissolve 1.16 ounces of caustic soda and 
1.41 ounces of milk sugar in 2.11 pints of water. Boil 
the solution for fifteen minutes, and after taking it from 
the fire compound it with 1.41 ounces of cold concentrated 
solution of sulphate of copper. The red precipitate of 
cuprous oxide, which is immediately formed, deposits on 
cooling upon the bottom of the vessel. The polished ar- 
ticles resting upon a wooden sieve are then placed in the 
vessel containing the solution. After about a minute the 
sieve is taken out in order to ascertain how far the opera- 
tion has progressed ; it is then replaced, and at the end of 
the second minute the golden color is generally dark 
enough. The sieve is then taken out, and the articles 
after washing dried in saw-dust. By allowing the articles 
to remain for a longer time in the solution they acquire 
in a short time a greenish tint, which soon becomes yellow 
and then bluish-green, until finally the iridescent colors 
are formed. In order to obtain a uniform coloration it is 
necessary to produce the color slowly, which is best at- 
tained at a temperature of from 132° to 136° F. The 
bath can be repeatedly used and kept for a long time in 
well-stoppered bottles. If partially exhausted, it can be 
restored by an addition of 5.64 drachms of caustic soda, 
sufficient water to replace that lost by evaporation, heat- 
ing to the boiling point, and finally adding 14.11 drachms of 
cold solution of sulphate of copper. 



412 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

To produce a beautiful silver color upon brass proceed 
as follows : Dissolve in a well-glazed vessel 1-J ounces of 
pulverized cream of tartar and 2.25 drachms of tartar 
emetic in 2.11 pints of hot w r ater, and add to the solution 
If ounces of hydrochloric acid, 4J ounces of granulated, 
or, still better, pulverized tin, and 1 ounce of pulverized 
antimony. Dip the articles to be coated into the solution 
heated to the boiling point. After boiling one-quarter to 
one-half hour, they will be provided with a beautiful lus- 
trous coating w T hich is hard and durable. 

Browning liquid for copper. — Add acetic acid to 11 
drachms of spirit of sal ammoniac until blue litmus paper 
dipped into the liquid turns red. Then add 5J drachms of 
sal ammoniac and sufficient water to make 2.11 pints. 
"With the solution thus obtained repeatedly moisten the 
copper surfaces, rubbing after each application until the 
desired brown tint is produced. 

For coloring brass Ebermayer, of Niirnberg, gives the 
following directions: (1) 8 parts of sulphate of copper, 
2 of sal ammoniac, and 100 of water give by boiling a 
greenish color. (2) 10 parts of potassium chlorate, 10 of 
sulphate of copper, and 1000 of water give by boiling a 
brown-orange to cinnamon-brown color. (3) By dissolv- 
ing 8 parts of sulphate of copper in 100 of water, and 
adding about 100 parts of caustic soda until a precipitate 
is formed, and boiling the articles in the solution, they ac- 
quire a greenish-brown color, which can be made darker 
by the addition of colcothar. (4) With 50 parts of caustic 
soda, 50 of sulphide of antimony, and 500 of water, and 
boiling, a light fig-brown color is obtained. (5) Boil 29 
parts of sulphate of copper, 20 of hyposulphite of soda, 
and 10 of cream of tartar in 400 of water. The brass 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 413 

first acquires a rose color and then a blue color. By add- 
ing 20 parts of amnionio-ferric sulphate and 20 of hypo- 
sulphite of soda, the colors change from yellow to rose 
color and blue ; after the latter yellow makes again its ap- 
pearance, and finally a beautiful gray is formed. (6) 400 
parts of water, 20 of potassium chlorate, and 10 of nickel 
salt give, after boiling for some time, a brown color, which 
is, however, not formed if the sheet has been pickled. (7) 
250 parts of water, 5 of potassium chlorate, 2 of carbo- 
nate of nickel, and 5 of nickel salt give, after boiling for 
some time, a brown-yellow color playing into a magnifi- 
cent red. (8) 250 parts of water, 5 of potassium chlorate, 
and 10 of nickel salt give a beautiful dark brown. (9) 
250 parts of water, 5 of orpiment, and 10 of crystallized 
soda give at first a beautiful red which passes into blue, 
then into pale blue, and finally becomes white. (10) 250 
parts of water, 5 of nickel salt, 5 of sulphate of copper, 
and 5 of potassium chlorate give a well-covering yellow- 
brown color. (11) 100 parts of water, 1 of liver of sul- 
phur, and 5 of ammonia. The articles being allowed to 
lie in a closed vessel finally acquire a very beautiful blue 
color. 

Coloring of soft solders. — For giving the solder used 
in soldering copper the same color as the latter, pre- 
pare first a saturated solution of pure sulphate of copper 
and apply it to the solder. By then touching the solder 
with an iron or steel wire the latter becomes covered with 
a film of copper, which can be augmented as much as de- 
sired by repeated moistening with the solution of sulphate 
of copper and touching with the wire. If the soldering is 
to show a yellow color, mix 1 part of saturated solution 
of sulphate of zinc with 2 parts of solution of sulphate of 

35* 



414 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

copper, apply the mixture to the coppered place and rub 
the latter with a zinc rod. If the soldered place is to be 
gilded, copper it as above described, then coat it with a so- 
lution of gum or isinglass, and strew bronze powder upon 
it. This forms a surface which, when the gum is dry, can 
be polished. 



INDEX. 



ABEL, C. D., patented alloys, 
312-316 
Aich's metal, 111, 112 

Alchemy, development of chemis- 
try largely due to, 28 
Alfenide, 244, 215 
Algiers bell-metal, 190 
Alkali metals, 36, 13 
Alkaline earths, metals of the, 13, 

11 
Alloy, designation of the term, 39 
for casting small articles, 379 
general acceptation of the 

term, 25 
which expands on cooling, 373 
Alloying, historical data of, 25 
Alloys for calico printing rollers, 
371-377 
for small patterns in foun- 
dries, 371 
general properties of, 77-83 
properties of, different from 
the mean of their constitu- 
ents, 79-83 
the density of which is greater 
than the mean of their con- 
stituents, 81 
the density of which is less 
than the mean of their con- 
stituents, 81 
Aluminium alloy, Webster's, 268 
alloys of, 18 

and brass alloy, 268, 269 
chromium alloy, 270 
copper, alloys of, 261-271 
gold alloys, 327 
silver alloys, 310, 311 
tin alloy, 270 
bronze, 262-209 

and nickel alloys, 267, 268 
brazing, 209 



Aluminium bronze — 

casting, 261, 265 
forging, 265 
manufacture of, 266 
results obtained with 
pieces of the Cowles 
Company alloys, 266, 
267 
rolling:, 265, 266 
soldering, 269, 270 
tests of, at the Washing- 
ton Nayy Yard, 267 
Cowles Brothers' process of 

obtaining, 17, 18 
description of, 48 
Lauterborn's patented process 

for preparing, 16, 17 
methods of production of, in 

France, 15, 46 
solder, 396 
specific gravity of, 75 
symbol, atomic weight, occur- 
rence, and characteristics 
of, 44-49 
Amalgam, 25 

for electrical machines, 359 
fire gilding, 351, 352 
mirrors, 357-359 
tinning, 359 
of cadmium, 360, 361 
copper, 355-357 
iron, 363, 364 
Lipowitz's metal, 362, 363 
sodium, 365, 366 
tin for fillino- teeth, 357 
zinc, 359, 360 
Amalgims, 349-367 

for filling teeth, 361 

silvering glass globes, 361, 
365 
of bismuth, 364, 365 



416 



IXDEX. 



Amalgams — 

of the fusible alloys, 362 
the platinum metals, 355 
tin, 357 
American sleigh-bells, 378, 379 
Anatomical preparations, bismuth 

amalgam for, 365 
Annealing; of sheet-brass, 131 
A nti- friction brasses, alloy for, 253 
Antimony, 69, 70 

and arsenic, influence of, on 

copper, 91. 
and bismuth, alloy of, 303 
effect of, on bronze, 165 
on copper, 93 
upon tin alloys, 217 
specific gravity and melting 
point of. 75 
Antique bronze- weapon, 202 
Argentan. 234-237 

solders, 390-392 
Argentiferous copper alloys, 96 
Argent-Ruolz, 312, 317 
Argiroide, 244 
Arnold's iron alloy, 379 
Arsenic, 70, 71 

and copper, alloys of, 258 

silver alloys. 317 
effect of, on bronze, 165 
on copper, 93 
Ashberry metal, 283 
Aurichalcum, 97 
Auriferous copper alloys, 95, 96 
Autogenous soldering, 381 



BABBITT'S anti-attrition metal. 
251, 252 
Base metals, alloys of, with cop- 
per, 96, 97 
definition of, 31 
Baths for tempering and heating 

steel articles, 274, 275 
Bearing metal, palladium, 317 
Bearings, metals for, 196-198 
Bell-metal, 186-190 

melting and casting of, 

187, 188 
percentage of tin in, 188 
silver, 190 

table of compositions of, 
189 
Bells, small, table of compositions 
lor, 189, 190 



Berthier's allov, 229, 230 
Bjddery metal, 282, 283 
Birmingham platinum, 142 
Bismuth, 69 

allov for cementing glass, 306, 

307 
alloys, 301-309 

for delicate -castings, 306 
table of fusing points of, 
307 
amalgam for anatomical pre- 
parations, 365 
amalgams of, 361, 365 
and antimony, alloys of, 303 
copper alloys, 302 
iron alloys, 303 
lead alloys, 303, 308 
tin alloys, 302, 308 
zinc alloys, 302 
behavior of, towards other 

metals, 301-303 
bronze, 308, 309 
group of metals, 69, 70 
influence of, on copper, 91, 94 
solder, 385 
specific gravity and melting 

point of, 75 
tin, and lead alloys, 304 
Block tin, 61 
Bobierre's metal, 111 
Brass and aluminium alloy, 268, 
269 
Bristol, 109, 110 
bronze as a substitute for, 199 
buttons, coloring of, 410, 411 
cast, 106, 107 
casting of, 126-131 
characteristics of, of different 

compositions, 99 
cleansing or pickling of, 132- 

181 
coloring, a beautiful gold 

colon 111 
crystalline structure of, 100 
directions for coloring, 112, 

113 
earliest mention of, 97, 9S 
early mention of, 25 
effect of contaminations upon, 

103 
employment of, in the arts, 103 
fine cast, 10S 

for small statues, 136, 137 
French, for fine castings, 109 



INDEX. 



417 



Brass — 

furnaces, 118-122 

for the fusing of, directly 
upon the hearth, 123- 
125 
in a fused state, effect of'air 

upon, 102, 103 
ingots, casting of, 126-128 
introduction of, into Ger- 
many, 98 
its properties, manufacture, 

and uses, 97-115 
lustrous-gray or black coating 

for, 409, 410 
malleable, 110 
manufacture of, 115-125 

by fusing the metals to- 
gether, 117-125 
in England, 98 
with the use of zincife- 
rous ores, 116, 117 
melting point of, 102 
molecular structure of, 102 
of commerce, constituents of, 

98 
plate casting of, 128-131 
red, 134, 135 
Roman trade in, 26 
silver covering for, 412 

solder, 393 
solder, 386-390 
suitable for the fabrication of 

sheet and wire, 105 
table of composition of bronz- 
ing liquids for, by simple 
immersion, 408 
tenacity of, 102 
very ductile, preparation of, 

101, 102 
waste, utilization of, 106 
Brasses, anti-friction alloy for, 

253 
Brazing aluminium bronze, 269 
Bristof brass, 109, 110 
Britannia metal, 275-284 

casting of, 279-281 
preparation of, 278, 279 
properties of, 275, 276 
silvering of, 281 
solder for, 384 
specific gravity of, 278 
table of composition of, 
277, 278 
Brocade bronze powder, 148, 149 



Bronze, a beautiful, 199 
alloys, 161 

coloring of, 165 
aluminium, 262-269 
as a substitute for brass, 199 
castings, contraction of, in 

solidifying, 169, 170 
commercial, metals generally 

found in, 162 
compositions, ductility and 
hardness of, 165-168 
table of densities of, 169 
of melting points of, 
169 
early manufacture of, 27 
effects produced by several 

metals on, 162-165 
for articles exposed to shocks 
and very great friction, 199 
for casting small articles, 

heating of, 174 
for small castings, 194 
statues, 136, 137 
telephone lines, 210, 211 
valve balls and for parts to 
be soldered, 199 
gold, 194, 195 
hardness and ductility of, 165- 

168 
in general, 161-173 
kept long in a fluid state, 

alloys produced by, 172 
lustrous-gray or black coating 

for, 409, 410 
machine, 196 
medal and coin, 192, 193 
melting and casting of, 173- 

180 
old Peruvian, 201, 202 
phosphor, 204-211 
physical properties of, affected 
by the cooling of the fused 
mass, 165 
powders, 146-149 

alloys for various colors, 
148 
preparation of, in large quan- 
tities, 174, 175 
principal constituent of, 161 
red hot, effect produced by 
tempering in cold water, 
167, 16S 
resisting acids, 372, 373 

the action of the air, 199 



418 



IXDEX. 



Bronze — 

sheets for sheathing- of vessels, 
196 
non-crystallization of, 101 
silicon, 259-261 
statuary, 211-215 

melting and casting of, 

211, 215 
table of alloys for, 213, 214 
steel, 185 

the different kinds of, 179, 180 
to be gilded, 195, 196 

obtain the greatest strength 
in, 168 
Turkish, 202 
weapon, antique. 202 
Webster's bismuth, 308, 309 
which can be rolled, 196 
Bronzes, Chinese, 199-201 

for various purposes, 191-202 
Japanese, analysis of, 201 
of prehistoric times, 179, 180 
with varying contents of tin, 
208 
Bronzing: cast figures, 406, 407 
liquids, 407^412 



CADMIUM, 58 
\J alloys, 297-801 

with various melting 
points, 299, 300 
amalgam of, 360, 361 
crystallization of, 100 
Calico printing rollers, alloys for. 

374-377 
Calin, 368, 369 
Carbon, 72, 73 
Cassiterite, 60 
Cast- brass. 106, 107 

ordinary, 107, 108 
table of analysis of vari- 
ous kinds of, 106, 107 
iron and steel, solder for, 384 

silver solder for, 394 
phosphor bronze, table of 
elastic limit and ultimate 
resistance of, 209 
Casting and melting of brass, 173- 
180 
statuary bronze, 214. 215 
of brass, 126-131 

ingots of brass, 126-128 
plate-brass, 128-131 



Charcoal as a protection against 
oxidation of the metals, 85 
furnace for crucibles, illus- 
trated and described, 120, 
121 
Chemical and physical relations 
of metals, 30-42 
combination, explanation of 

the term, 41. 42 
relations of the metals, 34-42 
sy mbols of elementary bodies, 
42 
Chemistry, development of, by the 

Moors in Spain, 27, 28 
Chromium and aluminium alloy, 
270 
symbol, atomic weight, and 
characteristics, 55 
Chrysochalk, 137 
Chrvsorin, 108, 109 
Clark's patent alloy, 323 
Cleansing or pickling of brass, 

132-134 
Cliche metal, 300, 304 
Coal, arrangement of furnaces for 

the use of, 122, 123 
Cobalt and copper, alloys of, 258, 
259 
and nickel, closely allied, 231 
symbol, atomic weight, com- 
pounds, and properties of, 
52, 53 
Coinage in the middle ages, 28 
Coin and medal bronze, 192, 193 
Coins, fineness of, 319 

silver, table of composition of, 

319, 320 
Swiss fractional, alloys for, 
317 
Coke furnace for crucibles, illus- 
trated and described, 118-120 
Coloration of copper articles, 405 
Colored gold, table of the compo- 
sition of alloys for, 335 
Coloring of alloys, 401-413 
Cooper's gold, 345 
mirror metal, 346 
pen metal, 316 
Copper, 63, 64 
alloys, 90-97 

argentiferous, 96 

as chemical combinations, 

94, 95 
auriferous, 95, 96 



INDEX. 



419 



Copper aWoys — 

difficulty in the manufac- 
ture of, 90, 91 
molecular change of, by 

forging, 167 
most important, 95 
with other metals, 254- 

261 
with the base metals, 96, 

97 
with tin and antimony, 
246-253 
amalgam, 355-357 
and aluminium, alloys of, 
261-271 
arsenic, alloys of, 258 
bismuth alloys, 302 
cobalt, alloys of, 25S, 259 
gold alloys, 325 
iron, alloys of, 257 
lead, alloys o, 257, 258 
nickel alloy, 229 
platinum alloys, 344 
silicon, alloys of, 259-261 
silver alloys, 318, 319 

melting- together of, 79 
tin alloy, best mode of 
fusing, 171, 172 
alloys, table of the pro- 
perties of, 215-228 
zinc, alloys, table of the 
properties of, 149- 
• 161 

behavior of alloys of, 
99, 100 
behavior of, towards admix- 
tures, 93, 94 
browning liquid for, 412 
coloration of, 405 
compositions for bronzing, by 

simple immersion, 409 
difficulties in casting un- 
mixed, 90 
effect of antimony on, 93 
of arsenic on, 93 
bismuth on, 94 
cuprous oxide on , 92, 93 
lead on, 91, 93 
phosphorus on, 92, 93 
on tin alloys, 247 
for alloys, examination of, 94 
influence of silicon on, 92 
of sulphur on, 92 
of various metals on, 91, 92 



Copper — 

nickel, and zinc alloys, 230- 

234 
non metallic bodies found 

with, 92 
ore, gray, 94 
old, "use of, in making brass, 

103 
phosphide, 206, 207 
red bronze powder, alloy for, 

148 
silver, and nickel alloys, 312 
specific gravity and melting 

point of, 75 
tensile strength of, 228 
zinc alloys, iron in, 367, 368 
Mallet's table of the 
properties of, 104 
Cowles Brothers' process of obtain- 
ing aluminium, 47, 48 
Company alloys, 266, 267 
Crimson-bronze powder, alloy for, 

148 
Crucibles, furnaces for, illustrated 

and described, 118-122 
Cupro-manganese, 254-256 
Cuprous oxide, effect of, on cop- 
per, 93 
influence of, on copper, 92 



DARCET'S fusible alloys, 305, 
306 
Defective places in metallic cast- 
ings, alloy for filling, 304 
Delalot's alloy, 322, 323 
Dewrance's patent bearing for 

locomotives, 253 
Dronier's malleable bronze, 357 
Ductility of metals, 32 

change of, in alloying, 79, 
80 
Dutch metal, 130, 131 



EARTHS, alkaline, metals of 
the, 43, 44 
proper, metals of the, 44-49 
Ehrhardt's type metal, 287 
Elementary bodies, chemical 
grouping of, 31 
table of, with their sym- 
bols and atomic weights, 



420 



INDEX. 



Email cloisonne, 194 
Enamelled work, solder for, 395 
English bronze powders, 148 
metal, 284 

process of manufacturing Ger- 
man silver, 242-244 
sterro-metal, 113 
white metal, 253 
Evans's metallic cement, 361 
Experiments in the preparation 
of new allovs, best method of 
making, 89, 90 



FAHL ore, content of, 94 
Fablun brilliant's, 273 
Fat, use of, to prevent oxidation, 

85 
Fenton's alloy for axle boxes for 

locomotives and wagons, 252 
Ferro-cobalt, malleable, 371, 372 

nickel, malleable, 371, 372 
Filling teeth, amalgams for, 361 
Fine cast-brass, 108 
Fire-gilding, 353-355 

early knowledge of, 27 
silvering, 353-355 
French cast-brass for fine castings, 
109 
gold, 138, 139 
Furnace, arrangement of, for the 
use of gas, 123 
influence of the, on the loss 
of metal and qualities of the 
castings, 172 
Furnaces, arrangement of, for the 
use of coal, 122, 123 
for crucibles, illustrated and 

described, 118-122 
for fusing the brass directly 

upon the hearth, 123-125 
reverberatory, illustrated and 
described, 175-179 
Fusible alloy, new, 308 
alloys, 299, 305, 306 

amalgams of the, 362 
Fusibility of metals, 33 



GALLIUM, 59 
and indium, alloys of, 369, 
370 
Gas, arrangement of furnace for 
use of, 123 



Gedge's alloy for sheathing for 

vessels, 113 
General properties of alloys, 77-83 
German process of manufacturing 
argentan, 239-242 
silver (argentan), 234-237 
alloy resembling, 368 
effect of arsenic on, 230 

of tin on, 237 
English process of manu- 
facture, 242-244 
German process of manu- 
facturing, 239-242 
influence of iron on, 231, 
237 
of lead on, 237 
of manganese on, 237 
of metals in, 231-233 
manufacture of, on a large 

scale, 237-246 
properties of, 230 
table of analyses of dif- 
ferent kinds of, 235, 236 
uses of, 244 
Glass, bismuth alloy for cement- 
ing, 306, 307 
influence of, on alloys, 85 
Gold, 67, 68 

alloys, 324-337 

imitation, 144-146 
legal in various countries, 
334 
standards, 331 

in various coun- 
tries, 334 
preparation of, 327-331 
by the galvanic pro- 
cess, 336, 337 
use of, 332-337 
used by jewelers, 335 
amalgam, 350-352 
and aluminium alloys, 327 
copper alloys, 325 
palladium, alloys of, 326 
platinum alloys, 340, 341 
silver alloys, 325, 326 
articles, coloring of, 337 
bronze, 194, 195 
carats, 331 
copper, 137 
flux for melting, 330 
group of metals, 66-69 
jewelry, standards for, 333 
scrap, remelting, 330 



INDEX. 



421 



Gold- 
solders, 394-396 
specific gravity and melting 

point of, 75 
standard, 332, 333 
ware, Pforzheim, 334, 335 
wind furnace for melting, il- 
lustrated, 329, 330 
Gongs, manufacture of, 188, 189 
Grain tin, 61 
Granite moulds, use of, in casting 

of brass, 129, 130 
Graphite crucibles, difficulties in 

use of, 85, 86 
Gray-copper ore, 94 
silver, 321, 322 
Green leaf-metal, alloys for, 145, 

146 
Gun-barrels, to brown, 405, 406 
metal, 1S1-186 

properties demanded of 

good, 181, 182 
proportionate content of 

tin in, 182, 183 
table of various composi- 
tions of, 185, 186 
temperature of, at cast- 
ing, 184 



HAMILTON'S metal, 108, 109 
Hardness of metals, change 
of, in alloying, 79, 80 
Hard-soldering fluid, 399 

solders, 385-392 
Heavy metals, 49 

group division of, 37, 38 
Hoyle's patent alloy for pivot bear- 
ings, 253 



TMITATION gold alloys, 144-146 
1 silver alloys, 322-324 
Ingots, brass, casting of, 126-128 
Iridescent coloring of metals, 410, 

411 
Indium, 58 

and gallium , alloys of, 369, 370 
Iridium and platinum alloys, 340 

specific gravity of, 75 
Iron alloy, Arnold's, 379 
amalgam of, 363, 364 
and bismuth alloys, 303 
and copper, alloys of, 257 
36 



Iron — 

and lead, alloys of, 295, 296 
behavior of, 40 

effect of a content of phospho- 
rus on, 41 
of a content of sulphur 

on, 41 
on bronze, 164 
group of metals, 50-56 
in copper-zinc alloys, 367, 368 
influence of, in copper alloy, 91 
on German silver, 231, 237 
moulds, use of, in casting of 

brass, 129 
specific gravity and melting 

point of, 75 " 
symbol, atomic weight, and 
characteristics of, 50-52 



JACOBY'S white metal, 253 
Japanese bronzes, analyses of, 
201 
silver, 321, 322 
Jeweler's gold, proportions for, 335 



KEYS of flutes, etc., alloy for, 288 
King crucible, use of, 126, 127 
Kingston's metal, 252 
Kirkaldy, experiments for tenacity 

and ductility of phosphor-bronze 

wire, 208, 209 
Klischer, researches of, in regard 

to crystallization of metals, 100, 

101 
Kupfernickel, 53 



LACQUERS, Graham's table of, 
401, 402 
Lauterborn's process for preparing 

aluminium, 46, 47 
Lead, 62, 63 

alloys, 284-296 

with other metals, 296 
and bismuth alloys, 303, 308 
copper, alloys of, 257, 258 
iron, alloys of, 205, 296 
tin alloys, 272-275 

table of melting 
points of, 273-275 
pipes, solder for, 384 
effect of, on bronze, 163, 164 



422 



INDEX. 



Lead, effect — 

on copper, 93 
group of metais, 62, 63 
influence of a content of, in 
copper alloys, 91 
on German silver, 237 
specific gravity and melting 
point of, 75 
Lemarquand's non-oxidizable al- 
loy, 379 
Lemon bronze powder, alloy for, 

148 
Light metals, decomposition of 

water by the, 37 
Lipowitz's alloy, 298, £99 

metal, amalgam of, 362, 363 
Loam moulds, use of, in casting 

of brass, 129 
Lustreless brass, pickle for mak- 
ing, 133, 134 
Lutecine or Fans metal, 374 



MACHINE bronze, 196 
metals tor various pur- 
poses, table of, 198 
Macht's yellow metal, 111 
Mackenzie's amalgam, 366 
Magnesium, specific gravity and 
melting point of. 75 
symbol, atomic weight, and 
characteristics of, 49 
Malleable brass, 110 
bronze, 357 

ferro-cobalt and ferro-nickel, 
371, 372 
Manganese, cupro, 254-256 

influence of, on German silver, 

237 
specific gravity of, 75 
symbol, atomic weight, occur- 
rence, and characteristics 
of, 52 
Mannheim gold, 137 
Manufacture of brass, 115-125 
Marlie's non-oxidizable alloy, 379 
Medal and coin bronze, 192, 193 
Melting and casting of bronze, 
173-180 
of statuary bronze, 214, 
215 
points of alloys, 80 

after repeated remelt- 
ings, 87 



Mercury, 64, 65 

affinity of metals for, 350 
characteristics of, 349 
combined with certain metals, 

78 
its metallic properties known 

to the ancients, 27 
specific gravity of, 75 
Metallic castings, alloy for filling 
defective places in, 304 
cement, Evans's, 361 
lustre, 32 
uranium, 55 
Metal stopcocks which deposit no 
verdigris, alloy for, 253 
white, 142-144 
Metals, alkali, 43 

alloying of the noble, 26 
base, definition of, 34 
changes undergone by, in al- 
loying, 79-81 
chemical and physical rela- 
tions of, 30-42 
relations of the, 34-42 
combining, with non-metallic 

elements, 89, 90 
ductility of, 32 

and hardness of, change 
of, in alloying, 79, 80 
for bearings, 196-198 
fusibility of, 33 
heavy, 49 

group division of, 37, 38 
light, group divisions of, 35 
mixtures of, in the middle 

ages, 28 
most frequently emploved in 

alloys, 83 
noble, definition of, 34 
number found among. the ele- 
mentary bodies, 29 
of different fusibilities, pre- 
paring alloys from, 86 
of the alkaline earths, 43, 44 
of the earths proper, 36, 37, 

44-49 
of varying densities, to pre- 
pare alloys from, 86, 87 
only mixtures of, known at 

time of Charlemagne, 27 
opacity of, 32 

physical relations of, 31-33 
and chemical relations of, 
30-42 



INDEX. 



423 



Metals- 
prices of, 75-77 
special properties of the, 43-77 
table of the melting- points and 

specific gravities of, 71, 75 
tenacity of, 33 

understanding of the terra 
from a chemical standpoint, 
31, 32 
Minargent, 322 
Minofor metal, 283 
Mirror metal, Cooper's, 346 
Mirrors, amalgams for, 357-359 
Miscellaneous alloys, 367-379 
Mitis castings, 270, 271 
Molybdenum, 60 
Mosaic gold, 108, 109 
Moulds for casting brass, 128-130 
ingots of brass, 127, 128 
for pressed glass, alloy for, 

369 
treatment of, before usimr, 171 
Mousset's silver alloy, 316, 317 
Muntz metal, 110, 111 



ATEWTON'S metal, 304 
11 Nickel alloy, Webster's, 268 
alloys, 229-237 
coinage. 55 
summary of their pro- 
perties, 232, 233 
use of, in thermo-elec- 
tric piles, 234 
and aluminium bronze, alloys 

of, 267, 268 
and cobalt, closely allied, 231 

copper alloy, 229 
copper, and zinc alloys, 230- 

234 
effect of, on bronze, 164 
explanation of the term, 53 
Fleitmann's process of refin- 
ing and toughening, 54, 55 
influence of, on copper, 91 
obtaining of, 230, 231 
ores, occurrence of, 53 

reducing, 231 
specific gravity of, 75 

and other character- 
istics of, 54 
speiss, 314 

symbol, atomic weight, etc., 53 
Nitrous acid, preparation of, 133 



! Nitrous acid — 

use of, in brass pickles, 
133 
• Noble metals, definition of, 34 
Non-metallic bodies capable of 
changing the properties 
of metals, 40 
elements combining with 
metals, 89, 90 
oxidizable alloys, 368, 379 
Nurnberg gold, 327 



ONION'S fusible alloy, 305 
Opacity of metals, 32 
Orange bronze powder, alloy for, 

148 
Ordinary cast-brass, 107, 108 
| Ordnance or gun-metal, 181-186 
i Oielde, 138, 139 
1 Ormolu, 103, 194 
Ornaments, alloys for the manu- 
facture of, 344-346 
Oroide, 138, 139 

Oxidation of alloys, best preven- 
tive against, 171 
of the metals, precautionary 
measures against, 84, 85 
Oxygen of the atmosphere, beha- 
vior of the alloys -towards, 170, 
171 



PACKFONG, genuine, the origi- 
nal alloy, 231 
Pale green bronze powder, alloy 
for, 148 
yellow bronze powder, alloy 
for, 148 
Palladium alloys, 346, 347 
and silver, alloys of, 347 
bearing metal, 347 
specific gravity of, 75 
Patina, 402-405 
Pen metal, Cooper's, 346 
Peruvian bronze, old, 201, 202 
Pewterers' Company of England, 

275 
Pforzheim gold-ware, 334, 335 
Phosphide of tin, 207 
Phosphor-bronze, 204-211 

analyses of different kinds 
of', 208 



424 



INDEX. 



Phosphor-bronze — 

cast, table of elastic limit 
and ultimate resistance, 
209 
chief properties of, 207, 

208 
discovery of, 205 
wire, table of tenacity and 
ductility of, 208, 209 
bronzes, Thurston's classifica- 
tion of, 209, 210 
iridium, 347, 348 
Phosphorus, 73, 74 

content of, in metals, 74 
deoxidation of the metals by, 

171 
effect of, on copper, 92, 93 

on iron, 41 
influence of, in phosphor- 
bronze, 204-206 
Physical and chemical relations of 
metals, 30-42 
relations of the metals, 31-33 
Pickles containing- nitric acid, pro- 
perties of, 132, 133 
Pickling or cleansing of brass, 132- 

134 
Pinchbeck, 138 

Pirsch-Baudoin's alloy, 323, 324 
Pivot bearings, Hoyle's patent al- 
loy for, 253 
Plate-brass, casting of, 128-131 

furnace for fusing the 
metal, illustrated and 
described, 121, 122 
Plates for engraving music, 287 
Platinoid, 370, 371 
Platinor, 342 
Platinum, 68, 69 

alloy, casting of, 339, 340 
alloys and metals, 337-348 
preparation of, on a small 

scale, 339, 340 
with the base metals, 343, 

344 
uses of, 337, 338 
and copper alloys, 344 
gold alloys, 340, 341 
iridium alloys, 340 
silver alloys, 341 
Birmingham, 142 
bronze, 342, 343 
gold, silver, and palladium 
alloys, 341, 342 



Platinum — 

lead, 142, 143 
melting of, 338, 339 
metals, amalgams of, 355 

generally associated with, 
338 
specific gravity of, 75 
Plumbers' sealed solder, 384 

work, solders for, 384 
Potassium, effect of, on water, 37 
Potin gris, 107 
jaune, 107 
Prechtl's brass solders, 389 
Preparation of alloys in general, 

83-90 
Preparing alloys of metals of vary- 
ing densities, 86, 87 
Prices of metals, table of, 75-77 
Prince's metal, 109, 110 



RED brass, 134, 135 
Remelting metallic alloys, 
protective cover in, 367 
of alloys, changes pro- 
duced by, 87 
Reverberatory furnaces, illustrated 

and described, 175-179 
Robertson's alloy for filling teeth, 

378 
Rollers, calico printing, alloys for, 
374-377 
composition of scrapers for 
removing surplus colors 
from, 375 
Roose's white metal, 253 
Rose's alloys, 304, 305 
Rosthorn, Baron, test of sterro- 

metal, 113, 114 
Rosthorn's sterro-metal, 112 
Rule for calculating the mean 
specific gravity of an alloy, 80, 81 
Ruolz silver, 312, 317 
Rust color, 402 



SAND moulds, use of, in casting 
brass, 129 
Scrap gold, remelting, 330 
Scrapers for removing surplus of 

colors from rollers, 375 
Sheathing, bronze sheets for, 196 

for vessels, 113 
Sheet-brass, annealing of, 131 



INDEX. 



425 



Sheet-brass — 

crystallization of, 101 
for sheets and wire, pre- 
paration of, 104, 105 
bronze, alloy for. 162 
Shot, casting of, 290-292 

forming', by centrifugal power, 

292 
metal, 288-290 
Smith's patent process for 
making, illustrated and 
described, 292-294 
sorting the, 294, 295 
Silicon bronze, 259-261 
wire, 260, 261 
Silicum, effect of, on copper, 92 
Silver, 65, 66 

alloy for casting, 821 
Mousset's, 316, 317 
resembling, 368 
alloys, 309-324 

blanching of, 321 
imitation, 322-324 
uses of, 310 
with other metals, 318 
amalgam, 352, 353 
and aluminium alloys, 310, 

311 
and arsenic alloys, 317 
copper alloys, 318, 319 
melting together of, 
79 
gold alloys, 325, 326 
palladium, alloys of, 347 
platinum alloys, 341 
tin, effect of, on copper, 

91 92 
zinc alloys, 311,312 
bell-metal, 190 
coins, table of composition of, 

319, 320 
copper, and cadmium alloys, 
318 
and nickel alloys, 312 
nickel, and zinc alloys, 
316 
fineness of, used in the manu- 
facture of silver -ware, 320, 
321 
German, properties of, 230 
gray, 321, 322 
group of metals, 63-66 
Japanese, 321, 322 
solders, 393, 394 



Silver solders — 

ordinary hard, 393 
specific gravity and melting 
point of, 75 
^srare, fineness of silver used 
in the manufacture of, 320, 
321 
Silvering, alloy for, 377 

glass globes, amalgams for, 

364, 365 
operation of, 377. 378 
Similor, 137 

Sleigh bells, American, 378, 379 
Sodium amalgam, 365, 366 
Soft solder, preparation of, 384 
solders, 382-385 

coloring of, 413, 414 
Soldering, 380-399 

aluminium bronze, 269, 270 
Solders and soldering fluids, treat- 
ment of, 397-399 
containing precious, metals, 

392-396 
for aluminium bronze, 269, 

270 
in general, 380-382 
soft, 382-385 
Solidified alloys, behavior of to- 
wards the atmosphere, 173 
Sorel's alloy, 143, 144 
Special properties of the metals, 

43-77 
Specific gravity of alloys, 80, 81 
Specula made by Mudge, 202, 203 
Speculum metal, 202-204 

centesimal composition 

of, 203 
proportions given bv 

David RossV 203 
table of some alloys for, 
203, 204 
Speiss, 53 
Spelter, 56, 57 
Spence's metal, 373, 374 
Spoons, alloy for, 368 
Standard gold, 332, 3-53 
Statuary bronze, 211-215 

melting and casting of, 

214, 215 
table of alloys for, 213, 
214 
Statues, table of the composition 

of a few celebrated, 214 
Steel and cast-iron, solder for, 3S4 
36* 



426 



INDEX. 



Steel- 
articles, alloys for baths for 

tempering, 274, 275 
bronze, 185 
composition, 371 
definition of, 40 
properties of, 40, 41 
silver solder for, 394 
Sterling metal, 107, 10S 
Sterro-metal. 112-114 

test of a, 11.3, 114 
Sulphur, 71, 72 

effect of, on bronze, 165 
on copper, 92 
on iron, 41 
Swiss fractional coins, alloys for, 
317 



IABLE of alloys for statuary 
bronze, 213, 214 
the density of which 
is greater than the 
mean of their con- 
stituents, 81 
the density of which 
is less" than the 
mean of their con- 
stituents, 81 
of analyses of different kinds 
of German silver, 235, 
236 
of tin, 60, 61 
of composition for small bells, 
189, 190 
of several varieties of 
Britannia metal, 277, 
278 
of silver coins of various 

countries, 319, 320 
of some bell-metals, 189 
of compositions of white 

metals for bearings, 250, 251 
of densities of bronze compo- 
sitions, 169 
of elementary bodies with 
their symbols and atomic 
weights, 42 
of fusing points of bismuth 

alloys, 307 
of machine metals for various 

purposes, 198 
of melting points of tin and 
lead alloys, 273-275 



Table— 

of metals for bearings, 198 

of prices of metals, 75-77 

of soft solders and their points 

of fusion, 383 
of some alloys for casting 
type, 286 
for speculum metal, 
203, 204 
of tenacity and ductility of 
phosphor-bronze wire, 208, 
209 
of the composition of a few 

celebrated statues, 214 
of the composition of good 
brass for the fabrication of 
sheet and wire, 105 
of the melting points of bronze 

compositions, 169 
of the properties of copper and 

tin alloys, 215-228 
of the properties of copper and 

zinc alloys, 149-157 
of the properties of copper- 
zinc alloys, 104 
of the specific gravities and 
melting points of the prin- 
cipal metals, 74, 75 
of various compositions of 
gun-metal, 185, 186 
Tables of the centesimal composi- 
tion of tested solders, 388, 
389 
of the composition of talmi 
gold, 139, 140 
Teeth, Robertson alloy for filling, 

378 
Telephone lines, bronze for, 210, 

21 L 
Tempering: and heating steel arti- 
cles, 274, 275 
Tenacity of alloys, 81, 82 
of brass, 102 
of metals, 32 
Testing of metallic alloys, 238 
Thallium, 63 

Thurston, Prof. R. H., on alloys 
of aluminium and cop- 
per, 267 
oh phosphor-bronzes, 209, 

210 
on the properties of the 
alloys of copper and 
zinc, 158-16 L 



INDEX. 



427 



Tiers- ardent, 311 
Tin, 60-62 

alloy, rich in, solidifying of a, 

172, 173 
alloys, 271-275 

effect of antimony upon, 
247 
of copper upon, 217 
with copper and additions 
of antimony, etc., 246- 
253 
amalgams of, 357 
and aluminium alloy, 270 
bismuth alloys, 308 
copper alloy, best mode of 
fusing, 171, 172 
alloys, table of the 
properties of, 215- 
228 
lead alloys, 272-275 

table of melting- 
points of, 273- 
275 
pipes, solder for, 381 
silver, effect of, on copper, 
91, 92 
crystallization of, 100 
effect of, combined with cop- 
per, 161, 162 
produced upon, by other 
metals, 216, 247 
group of metals, 60-62 
influence of, on German sil- 
ver, 237 
ore, occurrence of, 60 
phosphide of, 207 
proportionate content of, in 

gun-metal, 182, 183 ' 
pure, properties of, 246 
solder, 383 
specific gravity and melting 

point of, 75 
table of analysis of, 60, 61 
Tinning, amalgam for, 359 
Tissier's metal, 110, 141 
Tombac, 135, 136 

crystallization of, 101 
Toucas's alloy, 245 
Tournay's metal, 111 
Tournu-Leonard's alloy, 323 
Trabuk's alloy, 215, 246 
Tungsten, 59, 60 

group of metals, 59, 60 
Turkish bronze, 202 



Type metal, 281-287 

table of some alloys for, 

286 



URANIUM, metallic, 55 
Ure, Dr., rule for calculating 
the mean specific gravity 
of an alloy, 80, 81 
Utensils used in the manufacture 
of alloys, 83-85 



yANADIUM, 60 



WARNE'S metal, 322 
YY Webster Crown Metal Com- 
pany's aluminium alloys, 
tests of, 267, 268 
Webster's aluminium alloy, 268 

nickel alloy, 268 
White alloy closely resembling 
silver, 322 
buttons, alloys for, 143 
metal alloys, 161 

bearings, 219-253 
English, 253 
metals, 142-111, 218-251 
composition of, 248 
table of composition of, 
for bearings, 250, 251 
Wind furnace for melting, illus- 
trated, 329, 330 
Wood's alloy, 299 



YELLOW bronze powder, alloy 
for, 118 
metal, 110, 111 



ZINC, amalgam of, 359, 360 
and bismuth alloys, 302 

copper alloys, table of 
the properties of, 149- 
161 
and silver alloys, 311, 312 
brittleness, ductility, densi- 
ty, and melting point of, 
57 
composition for bronzing, 
by simple immersion, 409 



428 



INDEX. 



Ziuc amalgam — 

copper, and nickel alloys, 

230-234 
crystallization of, by heat, 

100 
effect of, on bronze, 163 
group of metals, 56-59 
influence of, on copper, 91 
iron, 373 



Zinc amalgam — 

ores, occurrence of, 56 
specific gravity and melting 

point of, 75 
symbol, atomic weight, 56 
white, 57 
Zinciferous ores, manufacture of 
brass with the use of, 116, 117 



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C. Bramwell. Third Edition, revised and enlarged? Illustrated. 
Pp. 400. i2mo. ........ S2 ^n 

BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on Animal and Vegetable 
Fats and Oils : 
Comprising both Fixed and Volatile Oils, their Physical and Chemi- 
cal Properties and Uses, the Manner of Extracting and Refining 
them, and Practical Rules for Testing them ; as well as the Manu- 
facture of Artificial Butter, Lubricants, including Mineral Lubricating 
Oils, etc., and on Ozokerite. Edited chiefly from the German of 
Drs. Karl Schaedler, G. W. Askinson, and Richard Brunner, 
with Additions and Lists of American Patents relating to the Extrac- 
tion, Rendei-ing, Refining, Decomposing, and Bleaching of Fats and 
Oils. By William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 244 engravings. 
739 pages. 8vo 37.50 

BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Soap 
and Candles : < 

Based upon the most Recent Experiences in the Practice and Science ; 
comprising the Chemistry, Raw Materials, Machine v. and Utensils 
and Various Processes of Manufacture, including a great variety of 
formulas. Edited chiefly from the German of Dr. C. Deite, A. 
Engelhardt, Dr. C. Schaedler and others; with additions and lists 
of American Patents relating to these subjects. By Wm. T. Brannt. 
Illustrated by 163 engravings. 677 pages. 8vo. . . $750 

BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the Raw Materials and the 
Distillation and Rectification of Alcohol, and the Prepara- 
tion of Alcoholic Liquors, Liqueurs, Cordials, Bitters, etc. : 
Edited chiefly from the German ol Dr. K. Stammer, l)r. I'. Eisner, 
and E. Schubert. By Wm. T. Brannt. Illustrated by thirty-one 
engravings'. 121110. . . . . . . . £2.50 



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BRANNT— WAHL.- The Techno- Chemical Receipt Book: 

Containing several thousand Receipts covering the latest, most ^m 
portant, and most useful discoveries in Chemical Technology, ana 
their Practical Application in the Arts and the Industries. Editec 
chiefly from the German of Drs. Winckler, Eisner, Heintze, Mier- 
zinski, Jacobsen, Roller, and Heinzerling, with additions by Wm. T. 
Brannt and Wm. H. Wahl, Ph. D. Illustrated by 78 engravings, 
l2mo. 495 pages . ... $2 00 

BROWN. — Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Movements. 
Embracing all those which are most important in Dynamics, Hy- 
draulics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam-Engines, Mill and other 
Gearing, Presses, Horology and Miscellaneous Machinery; and in- 
cluding many movements never before published, and several of 
which have only recently come into use. By Henry T. Brown. 
i2mo. $i.oc 

BUCKMASTER.— The Elements of Mechanical Physics : 
By J. C. BUCKMASTER. Illustrated with numerous engravings. 
i2mo $l-50 

BULLOCK.— The American Cottage Builder : 

A Series of Designs, Plans and Specifications, from $200 to $20,000, 
for Homes for the People ; together with Warming, Ventilation, 
Drainage, Painting and Landscape Gardening. By John Bullock, 
Architect and Editor of "The Rudiments of Architecture and 
Bml'iing," etc., etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. 8vo. $3-59 

BULLOCK.— The Rudiments of Architecture and Building: 
For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, En- 
gineers and Mechanics. Edited by John Bullock, author of " The 
American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 250 Engravings. 8vo. $3.50 

BURGH. — Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modern 
Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purposes. 
By N. P. Burgh, Engineer. i2mo. .... #1.50. 

BYLES. — Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Political 

Economy Examined. 

By a Barrister (Sir John Barnard Byles, Judge of Common 

Pleas). From the Ninth English Edition, as published by the 

Manchester Reciprocity Association. 121110. . . . $1.25 

BOWMAN.— The Structure of the Wool Fibre in its Relation 
to the Use of Wool for Technical Purposes : 
Being the substance, with additions, of Five Lectures, delivered at 
the request of the Council, to the members of the Bradford Technical 
College, and the Society of Dyers and Coloiists. By F. II. Bow- 
MAN, D. Sc, F. R. S. E., F. L. S. Illustrated by 32 engravings. 



vn. 



$6.50 

BYRNE. — Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engi- 
neer: 

Comprising the Grinding and Shnrpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasive 
Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing 
and Lackering, Apparatus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



Polishing, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 wood en- 
gravings. 8vo. ........ $5. oc 

BYRNE. — Pocket-Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers: 

Containing New, Exact and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroaa 
Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the Staking out of 
work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Embankments; Earth- 
work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. i8mo., full bound, pocket-book 
form $1.75 

BYRNE.— The Practical Metal- Worker's Assistant: 

Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metals 
and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and Tempering; 
Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding; Works in Sheet Metal; 
the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; 
and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal- 
workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to 
Manufacturing Processes; collected from Original Sources, and from 
the works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, 
Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn and others. By Oliver Byrne. A new, 
revised and improved edition, to which is added an Appendix, con- 
taining The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. By J<JHN PERCY, 
M. D., F. R. S. The Manufacture of Malleable Iron Castings, and 
Improvements in Bessemer Steel. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and 
Engineer. With over Six Hundred Engravings, Illustrating every 
Branch of the Subject. 8vo. $7.00 

BYRNE.— The Practical Model Calculator: 

For the Engineer, Mechanc, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Navai 
Architect, Miner and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 8vo. r nearly 
600 pages ......... $4. 5c- 

CABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE: 

Comprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furniture. 
Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. 
Obiong, 8vo $3-50 

CALLINGHAM. — Sign Writing and Glass Embossing: 

A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By James 
Callingham. 121110 $1.50 

CAMPIN. — A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering: 
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work- 
shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam' 
Engines, etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron 
Ores. By Francis Campin, C. E. To which are added, Observations 
on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces 
used for Smoke Prevention; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. 
Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the 
Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel 
cutting Machine. By J. La NlCCA. Management of Steel, Includ- 
ing Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking and 
Expansi n ; and the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Ede. 8vo. 
Illustrated with twenty-nine plates and 100 wood engravings $5.00 



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CAREY.— A Memoir of Henry C. Carey. 

By Dr. Wm. Elder, With a portrait. 8vo., cloth . . 75 

CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey : 

Harmony of Interests : Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commer- 
cial. 8vo. ..... $1.50 

Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey's " Principles 
of Social Science.'' By Kate McKea^ : . i vol. i2mo. . $2.25 
Miscellaneous 'Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. $6.00 

Past, Present and Future. 8vo $2.50 

Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes, 8vo. . . $10.00 
The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and 
How it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo. • • • $2.00 

The Unity of Law: As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, 
Social, Mental and Moral Science (1872). 8vo. . . $3.50 

CLARK. — Tramways, their Construction and Working : 

Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System. With an ex' 
haustive analysis of the various modes of traction, including horse- 
power, steam, heated water and compressed air; a description of the 
varieties of Rolling stock, and ample details of cost and working ex- 
penses. By D. Kinnear Clark. Illustrated by over 200 wood 
engravings, and thirteen folding plates. 2 vols. 8vo. . $12.50 

COLBURN.— The Locomotive Engine : 

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its 
Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man- 
agement. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. 121110. . $1.00 

COLLENS.— The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia. 
By T, Wharton Collens, author of " Humanics," " The History 
of Charity," etc. l2mo. Paper cover, $1.00; Cloth . $1.25 

COOLEY. — A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery: 

Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articles. 
With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulae. By Arnold j. 

COOLEY. 121110 $I.5Q 

COOPER.— A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Trans- 
mission of Power. 
With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar- 
ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Belt Fasten- 
ings. Examples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and cal- 
culating the size and driving power of Belts. PLain, Particular and 
Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Management of 
Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, together with 
chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes; by Iron and 
Wood Frictional Gearing; on the Strength of Belting Leather; and 
on the Experimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. By 
John H. Cooper, M. E. 8vo $3-5« 

CR.AIK. — The Practical American Millwright and Miller. 

By David Craik, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en- 
gravings and two folding plates. 8vo $S-°° 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



CREW. — A Practical Treatise on Petroleum : 

Comprising its Origin, Geology, Geographical Distribution, History, 
Chemistry, Mining, Technology, Uses and Transportation. Together 
with a Description of Gas Wells, the Application of Gas as Fuel, etc. 
By Benjamin J. Crew. With an Appendix on the Product and 
Exhaustion of the Oil Regions, and the Geology of Natural Gas in 
Pennsylvania and New York. By Charles A. Ashrurner, M. S., 
Geologist in Charge Pennsylvania Survey, Philadelphia Illustrated 
by 70 engravings. 8vo. 508 pages .... $450 

CROOKES.— Select Methods in Chemical Analysis (Chiefly 
Inorganic) : 
By William Crookes, F. R. S., V. P. C. S. 2d edition, rewritten 
and greatly enlarged. Illustrated by 37 wood-cuts. 725 pp. 8vo. $9.00 

CRISTIANI. — A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles : 
With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. Cuts 
TIANI, Chemist. Author of " Perfumery and Kindred Arts." Illus- 
trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. . . . #7.50 

CRISTIANI.— Perfumery and Kindred Arts: 

A Comprehensive Treatise on Perfumery, containing a, History of 
Perfumes from the remotest ages to the present time. A complete 
detailed description of the various Materials and Apparatus used in 
the Perfumer's Art, with thorough Practical Instruction and careful 
Formulae, and advice for the fabrication of all known preparations of 
the day, including Essences, Tinctures, Extracts, Spirits, Waters, 
Vinegars, Pomades, Powders, Paints, Oils, Emulsions, Cosmetics, 
Infusions, Pastilles, Tooth Powders and Washes, Cachous, Hair Dyes, 
Sachets, Essential Oils, Flavoring Extracts, etc. ; and full details for 
making and manipulating Fancy Toilet Soaps, Shaving Creams, etc., 
by new and improved methods. With an Appendix giving hints and 
advice for making and fermenting Domestic Wines, Cordials, Liquors, 
Candies, Jellies, Syrups, Colors, etc., and for Perfuming and Flavor- 
ing Segars, Snuff and Tobacco, and Miscellaneous Receipts for 
various useful Analogous Articles. By R. S. CRISTIANI, Con- 
sulting Chemist and Perfumer, Philadelphia. 8vo. . . $5-O0 

DAVIDSON. — A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain- 
ing, Marbling, and Sign- Writing : 
Containing full information on the processes of House Painting in 
Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign- 
Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary 
Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful 
Receipts. With nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles, 
and numerous wood engravings. By Ellis A. Davidson. 121110. 

$3.00 

CsAVIES. — A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and 

Mining : 

By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated by 

76 Engravings. 121110 $5-°° 



ro HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

DAVIES. — A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining: 
J5y D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mir.es, 
Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geological 
Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the 
practice of all parts of the world. 2d Edition, i2mo., 450 pages $5.00 

bAVIES.— A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying: 
Scientific, Practical and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., 
Mining Engineer, etc. With numerous illustrations and folding 
plates. i2mo. $2.50 

DAVIS. — A Treatise on Steam-Boiler Incrustation and Meth- 
ods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Scale .- 

By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated by 65 engravings. 8vo. $2.00 

DAVIS.— The Manufacture of Paper: 

Being a Description of the various Processes for the Fabrication, 
Coloring and Finishing of every kind of Paper, Including the Dif- 
ferent Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their Values, 
the Tools, Machines and Practical Details connected with an intelli- 
gent and a profitable prosecution of the art, with special reference to 
the best American Practice. To which are added a History of Pa- 
per, complete Lists of Paper-Making Materials, List of American 
Machines, Tools and Processes used in treating the Raw Materials, 
and in Making, Coloring and Finishing Paper. By Charles T. 
Davis. Illustrated by 156 engravings. 608 pages, 8vo. $6.00 

DAVIS.— The Manufacture of Leather: 

Being a description of all of the Processes for the Tanning, Tawing, 
Currying, Finishing and Dyeing of every kind of Leather ; including 
the various Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their 
Values; the Tools, Machines, and all Details of Importance con- 
nected with an Intelligent and Profitable Prosecution of the Art, with 
Special Reference to the Best American Practice. To which are 
added Complete Lists of all American Patents for Materials, Pro- 
cesses, Tools, and Machines for Tanning, Currying* etc By Charles 
Thomas Davis. Illustrated by 302 engravings and 12 Samples of 
Dyed Leathers. One vol., 8vo., 824 pages . . . $10.00 

DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the 

Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine 

Veneers and Foils, Isinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages, 

etc. : 

Based upon Actual Experience. By F. DAWIDOWSKY, Technical 

Chemist. Translated from the German, with extensive additions, 

including a description of the most Recent American Processes, by 

William T. Brannt, Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College 

of Eldena, Prussia. 35 Engravings. l2mo. . . . $2.50 

OE GRAFF.— The Geometrical Stair-Builders' Guide: 

Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all its 
necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by twenty-two Steel 
Engravings; together with the use of the most approved principles 
of Practical Geometry. By Simon De Graff, Architect. 4to. 

#2.50 



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P^ KONINCK— DIETZ.— A Practical Manual of Chemical 

Analysis and Assaying : 
As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron, 
Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. De 
Koninck, Dr. Sc, and E. Dietz, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by 
Robert Mallet, F. R. S., F. S. G., M. I. C. E., etc. American 
Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A. 
Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. l2mo. . . . $2.50 

DUNCAN.— Practical Surveyor's Guide: 

Containing the necessary information to make any person of com- 
mon capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher. 
By Andrew Duncan. Illustrated. i2mo. . . . $1.25 

^UPLAIS. — A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillation 
of Alcoholic Liquors : 
Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol 
from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Aspho- 
del, Fiuits, etc. ; with the Distillation and Rectificaton of Brandy. 
Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aro- 
matic Waters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromatic 
Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the 
Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of Spirits, with Copious 
Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors, 
etc., etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. DUPI.AIS, 
Aine et Jeune. By M. McKennie, M. D. To which are added the 
United States Internal Revenue Regulations for the Assessment ana 
Collection of Taxes on Distilled Spirits. Illustrated by fourteen 
folding plates and several wood engravings. 743 pp. 8vo. $1000 

DUSSAUCE.— Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Matches, 
Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powder. 
By Professor H. DUSSAUCE. 121110. . . . . $3 00 

DYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION: 

Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on 
the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics no w 
in existence; with the Scouring Process, and pliin Directions for 
Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. l2mo. $1 25 

EDWARDS.— A Catechism of the Marine Steam-Engine, 
For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Mechanics. A Practical 
Work for Practical Men. By Emory Edwards, Mechanical Engi- 
neer. Illustrated by sixty-three Engravings, including examples uf 
the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with 
much additional matter. 12 mo. 414 pages . . . $2 00 

EDWARDS. — Modern American Locomotive Engines, 

Their Design, Construction and Management. By Emory Edwards, 
Illustrated l2mo $2.00 

TCD WARDS. —The American Steam Engineer: 

Theoretical and Practical, with examples of the latest and mosl ap- 
proved American practice in the design and construction of Steam 
Engines and Boilers. For the u^e ol engineers, machinists, boiler- 
makers, and engineering students. l!y EMORY EDWARDS. Fully 
illustrated, over 400 pajjes. 1 21110. .... $2. 50 



12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



EDWARDS. — Modern American Marine Engines, Boilers, and. 

Screw Propellers, 

Their Design and Construction. Showing the Present Practice of 

the most Eminent Engineers and Marine Engine Builders in the 

United States. Illustrated by 30 large and elaborate plates. 4to. $5.00 

EDWARDS.— The Practical Steam Engineer's Guide 

In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary, 
Portable, and Steam Fire- Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers, Injectors, 
Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam 
Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. B) 
Emory Edwards. Illustrated by 119 engravings. 420 pages. 
i2mo $2 50 

ELDER.-— Conversations on the Principal Subjects of PoliticaJ 
Economy. 
By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. . . . . . $2 50 

ELDER.— Questions of the Day, 

Economic and Social. By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. . $3 00 

ELDER. — Memoir of Henry C. Carey. 

By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. cloth 75 

ERNI.— Mineralogy Simplified. 

Easy Methods of Determining and Classifying Minerals, including 
Ores, by means of the Blowpipe, and by Humid Chemical Analysis, 
based on Professor von Kobell's Tables for the Determination of 
Minerals, with an Introduction to Modern Chemistry. By Henry 
Erni, A.M., M.D., Professor of Chemistry. Second Edition, rewritten, 
enlarged and improved. i2mo. . . . £3 oc 

FAIRBAIRN.— The Principles of Mechanism and Machinery 
of Transmission • 
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, 
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shalts, and Engag- 
ing and Disengaging Gear. By Sir William Fairbairn, Bait. 
C. E. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one 
volume, i2mo $2.50 

FITCH.— Bessemer Steel, 

Ores and Methods, New Facts and Statistics Relating to the Types 
of Machinery in Use, the Methods in Vogue, Cost and Class of Laboj 
employed, and the Character and Availability of the Ores utilized in 
the Manufacture of Bessemer Steel in Europe and in the United States; 
together with opinions and excerpts from various accepted authorities. 
Compiled and arranged by Thomas W. Fitch. 8vo. . $3 00 

FLEMING. — Narrow Gauge Railways in America. 

A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics 
as to Grades, Curves, Weight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, e'c. By 
Howard Fleming. Illustrated, 8vo $1 00 

FORSYTH.— Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and 
other Monuments : 
Containing 78 Designs. By James Forsyth. With an Introduction 
by Charles Boutell, M. A. 4 to., cloth . . - $S °° 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 13 

FRANKEL- HUTTER.- A Practical Treatise on the Manu- 
facture of Starch, Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine : 
Based on the German of Ladislaus Von Wagner, Professor in the 
Royal Technical High' School, Buda-Pest, Hungary, and other 
authorities. By Julius Frankel, Graduate of the Polytechnic 
School of Hanover. Edited by Robert H utter, Chemist, Practical! 
Manufacturer of Starch-Sugar. Illustrated by 58 engravings, cover- 
ing every branch of the subject, including examples of the most 
Recent and Best American Machinery. 8vo., 344 pp. . $3.50 

GEE.— The Goldsmith's Handbook : 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold, 
including the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Coloring, Col- 
lecting, and Refining; the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of 
Waste ; Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold ; with a New 
System of Mixing its Alloys; Solders, Enamels, and other Useful 
Rules and Recipes. By George E. Gee. i2mo. . .' #175 

GEE. — The Silversmith's Handbook : 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, 
including the different modes of Refining and Melting the Metal; its 
Solders ; the Preparation of Imitation Alloys ; Methods of Manipula- 
tion ; Prevention of Waste; Instructions for Improving and Finishing 
the Surface of the Work ; together with other Useful Information and 
Memoranda. By George E. Gee, Jeweller. Illustrated. i2mo. 

£i-75 
GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET-MAKERS: 

Designs for Gothic Furniture. Twenty-three plates. Oblong $2.00 

GREENWOOD.— Steel and Iron: 

Comprising the Practice and Theory of the Several Methods Pur- 
sued in their Manufacture, and of their Treatment in the Rolling- 
Mills, the Forge, and the Foundry. By William Henry Green- 
wood, F. C. S. Asso. M. I. C. E., M. I. M. E., Associate of the Royal 
School of Mines. With 97 Diagrams, 536 pages. 121110. . $2.00 

GREGORY.— Mathematics for Practical Men: 

Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and 
Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates . $3.00 

GRIER.— Rural Hydraulics : 

A Practical Treatise on Rural Household Water Supply. Giving a 
full description of Springs and Wells, of Pumps and Hydraulic Ram, 
with Instructions in Cistern Building, Laying of Pipes, etc. By W 
W. GRIER. Illustrated 8vo 75 

GRIMSHAW.— Modern Milling: 

Being the substance of two addresses delivered by request, at the 
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, January 19th and January 27th, 
1 88 1. By Robert Grimshaw, Ph. D. Edited from the Phono- 
graphic Reports. With 28 Illustrations. 8vo. . . £1.00 

GRIMSHAW.— Saws: 

The History, Development, Action, Classification, and Comparison 
of Saws of all kinds. With Copious Appauliccs. Giving the details 



14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

of Manufacture, Filing, Setting, Gumming, etc. Care and Use of 
Saws; Tables of Gauges; Capacities of Saw-Mills; List of Saw- 
Patents, and other valuable information. By Robert Grimshaw. 
Second and greatly enlarged edition, with Supplement, and 354 Illus- 
trations. Quarto $4.00 

GRIMSHAW. — A Supplement to Grimshaw on Saws: 

Containing additional practical matter, more especially relating to the 
Forms of Saw-Teeth, for special material and conditions, and to the 
Behavior of Saws under particular conditions. 120 Illustrations. By 
Robert Grimshaw. Quarto $2.00 

GRISWOLD. — Railroad Engineer's Pocket Companion for the 
Field : 
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles, 
Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for En- 
gineers; also the Art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the 
Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young En- 
gineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By 
W. Griswolu. 121110., tucks $1-75 

GRUNER.- Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena: 

By M. L. Gruner, President of the General Council of Mines o\ 
P'r.mce, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines. 
Translated, with the author's sanction, with an Appendix, by L. D. 
B. Gordon, F. R. S. E.. F. G. S. 8\o. . . . #2.50 

Hand-Book of Useful Tables for the Lumberman, Farmer and 
Mechanic : 
Containing Accurate Tables of Logs Reduced to Inch Board Mens.. 
ure, Plank, Scantling and Timber Measure; Wages and Rent, by 
Week or Month; Capacity of Granaries, Bins and Cisterns; Land 
Measure, Interest Tables, with Directions for Finding the Interest on 
any sum at 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 per cent., and many other Useful Tables. 
32 mo., boards. 186 pages ...... .25 

HASERICK.— The Secrets of the Art of Dyeing Wool, Cotton, 
and Linen, 
Including Bleaching and Coloring Wool and Cotton Hosiery and 
Random Yarns. A Treatise based on Economy and Practice. By 
E. C. Haserick. Illustrated by 323 Dyed Patterns of the Yarns 
or fabrics. 8vo. , $12.50 

,HATS AND FELTING: 

A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter. 
Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . $1.25 

HOFFER. — A Practical Treatise on Caoutchouc and Gutta 

Percha, 

Comprising the Properties of the Raw Materials, and the manner of 

Mixing and Working them ; with the Fabrication of Vulcanized and 

Hard Rubbers, Caoutchouc ^.nd Gutta Percha Compositions, Water. 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 15 

proof Substances, Elastic Tissues, the Utilization of Waste, etc., etc. 
From the German of Raimund Hoffer. By W. T. Erannt. 

Illustrated i2mo. . $2.50 

HOFMANN. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
Paper in all its Branches : 
By Carl Hofmann, Late Superintendent of Paper-Mills in Germany 
and the United States; recently Manager of the "Public Ledger" 
Paper-Mills, near Elkton, Maryland. Illustrated by no wood en- 
gravings, and five large Folding Plates. 4to., cloth; about 400 

pages .... $35.00 

HUGHES. — American Miller and Millwright's Assistant: 
By William Carter Hughes. 121110. .... $1.50 

HULME. — Worked Examination Questions in Plane Geomet- 
rical Drawing : 
For the Use of Candidates for the Royal Military Academy, Wool- 
wich; the Royal Military College, Sandhurst ; the Indian Civil En- 
gineering College, Cooper's Hill ; Indian Public Works and Tele- 
graph Departments ; Royal Marine Lijjit Infantry; the Oxford and 
Cambridge Local Examinations, etc. By F. Edward Hulme, F. L. 
S., F. S. A., Art-Master Marlborough College. Illustrated by 300 
examples. Small quarto . . . . . . $3-75 

JERVIS.— Railroad Property: 

A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways; 
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the 
holders of this class of property ; as well as Railway Managers, Offi- 
cers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Civil Engineer of the 
Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. i2mo., cloth $2.00 
KEENE. — A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging: 

For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Distilla- 
tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom-House for 
ascertaining the Strength of Wines. By James B. Keene, of H. M. 
Customs. 8vo. ......•• $1.25 

KELLEY.— Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on Industrial and 
Financial Questions : 
By Hon. William D. Kelley, M. C. 544 pages, 8vo. . $300 
KELLOGG.— A New Monetary System : 

The only means of Securing the respective Rights of Labor and 
Property, and of Protecting the Public from Financial Revulsions. 
By Edward Kellogg. Revised from his work on "Labor and 
other Capital." With numerous additions from his manuscript 
Edited by Mary Kellogg Putnam. Fifth edition. To which te 
added a Biographical Sketch of the Author. One volume, 121110. 

Paper cover . . . #1.00 

Bound in cloth 1 -5° 

KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer's Hand-Book : 
Being a Complete Guide to the Young Beginner, in Taking Apart, 
Putting Together, and Thoroughly Cleaning the English Lever and 
other Foreign Watches, and all American Watches. By F. KEMLO, 
Practical Watchmaker. With Illustrations. 121110. . $1.25 



16 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 

KENTISH.— A Treatise on a Box of Instruments, 

And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Loga 
rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim- 
ber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By Thomas 
Kentish. In one volume. i2mo. . . . . $i.2C 

KERL. — The Assayer's Manual: 

An Abrilged Treatise on the Docimastic Examination of Ores, and 
Furnace and other Artificial Products. By Bruno Kerl, Professor 
in the Royal School of Mines ; Member of the Royal Technical 
Commission for the Industries, and of the Imperial Patent-Office, 
Berlin. Translated from the German by William T. Brannt, 
Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College of Eldena, Prussia. 
Edited by William H. Wahl, Ph. D., Secretary of the Franklin 
Institute, Philadelphia. Illustrated by sixty-five engravings. 8vo. 

$3-°° 
KJCK.— Flour Manufacture. 

A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Frederick Kick, 
Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the 
Imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from 
the second enlarged and revised edition with supplement by H. H. 
P. Powles, Assoc. Memb. Institution of Civil Engineers.. Illustrated 
with 28 Plates, and 167 Wood-cuts. 367 pages. 8vo. . #io.03 

KINGZETT.— The History, Products, and Processes of the 
Alkali Trade : 
Including the most Recent Improvements. By Charles Thomas 
Kingzett, Consulting Chemist. With 23 illustrations. 8vo. $2.50 

KINSLEY. — Self-Instructor on Lumber Surveying: 

For the Use of Lumber Manufacturers, Surveyors, and Teachers. 
By Charles Kinsley, Practical Surveyor and Teacher of Surveying. 
i2mo $2.00 

KIRK.— The Founding of Metals : 

A Practical Treatise on the Melting of Iron, with a Description of the 
Founding of Alloys; also, of all the Metals and Mineral Substances 
used in the Art of Founding. Collected from original sources. By 
Edward Kirk, Practical Foundryman and Chemist. Illustrated. 
Third edition. 8vo. $2.50 

LANDRIN.— A Treatise on Steel: 

Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, 
and Use. By M. H. C. Landrin, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated 
from the French, with Notes, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En- 
gineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Pro- 
*>>^es for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt 
United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 
l2mo $3-OC 

LARDEN.— A School Course on Heat: 
By W. Larden, M. A. 321 pp. i2mo. .... $2.00 

LARDNER.— The Steam-Engine : 

For the Use of Beginners. By Dr. Lardner. Illustrated. i2mo. 

75 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 17 

leARKIN. — The Practical Brass and Iron Founder's Guide: 
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and 
their Alloys, etc.; to which are added Recent Improvements in the 
Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By 
James Larkin, hue Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department ii; 
Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, Puiiadelphia. Fifth edition, 
rev. seel , with extensive additions. 121110. . . . $2.2 S 

LEROUX. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
Worsteds and Carded Yarns : 
Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied 
to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English 
and French Methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds, 
and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of 
Charles Leroux, Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a 
Spinning Mill, by Horatio Paine, M. D., and A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by twelve large Plates. To which 
is added an Appendix, containing Extracts from the Reports of the 
International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee 
appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woolen 
and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Uni- 
versal Exposition, 1867. 8vo. ..... $5.00 

LEFFEL,.— The Construction of Mill-Dams : 

Comprising also the Bu ; lding of -Race and Reservoir Embankments 
and Head-Gates, the Measurement of Streams, Gauging of Water 
Supply, etc. By James Leffel & Co. Illustrated by 58 engravings. 
8vo. $2.50 

LESLIE.— Complete Cookery: 

Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss Leslie. 
Sixtieth thoasand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New 
Receipts. In 121110., cloth ...... $1.50 

LIEBER.— Assayer's Guide : 

Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the 
Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all 
the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of 
Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. i2mo. . . . $1.25 

Lockwood's Dictionary of Terms : 

Used in the Practice of Mechanical Engineering, embracing those 
Current in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turn- 
ing, Smith's and Boiler Shops, etc., etc., comprising upwards of Six 
Thousnnd Definitions. Edited by a Foreman Pattern Maker, author 
of " Pattern Making." 417 pp. 121110. . . . $3.00 

kOVE. — The Art of Dyeing, Cleaning, Scouring, and Finish- 
ing, on the Most Approved English and French Methods: 
Being Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woolens, and Cottons, 
Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc". Scouring and Cleaning Bed and Win- 
dow Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc. French and English Cleaning, 
any Color or Fabric of Silk, Satin, or Damask. By THOMAS LOVE, 
a Working Dyer and Scourer- .Second American Edition* to which 



|8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



are added General Instructions for the use of Aniline Colors. 8vo. 

343 P a ges $5-°° 

LUKIN. — Amongst Machines; 

Embracing Descriptions oi the various Mechanical Appliances used 
in the Manufacture of Wood, Metal, and other Substances. 121110. 

LUKIN.— The Boy Engineers: 
What They Did, and How They Did It. With 30 plates. i8mo. 

I UKIN.— The Young Mechanic : 

Practical Carpentry. Containing Directions for the Use of all kinds 
of Tools, and for Construction of Steam- Engines and Mechanical 
Models, including the Art of Turning in Wood and Metal. By John 
Lukin, Author of "The Lathe and Its Uses," e'.c. Illustrated. 
i2mo $1.75 

MAIN and BROWN.— Questions on Subjects Connected with 

the Marine Steam-Engine: 

And Examination Papers.; with Hints for their Solution. By 

Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, 

and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R. N. i2mo., cloth . $1.50 

MAIN and BROWN. — The Indicator and Dynamometer: 
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By Thomas 
J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't S. Professor Royal Naval College, 
Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer 
R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. 8vo. . #1.50 

MAIN and BROWN.— The Marine Steam-Engine. 

By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at the 
Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. 
Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval 
College. With numerous illustrations. 8vo. . . . $5.00 

MARTIN.— Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanical 
Engineers : 
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads 
of Screws of any Required Pitch; with a Table for Making the Uni- 
versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer. 
8vo. 50 

MICHELL.— Mine Drainage: 

Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Under- 
ground Steam Pumping Machinery. With a Description of a large 
number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and the 
Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and 
their Merits compared with other Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN 
MlCHELL. Illustrated by 137 engravings. 8vo., 277 pages . $6.00 

MOLESWORTH.- Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae and 

Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers. 

By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of Civil 

Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full- 

bc-und in Pocket-book form $1.00 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



MOORE. — The Universal Assistant and the Complete Me- 
chanic : 
Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipts, 
Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Forms, Legal Items, Etc., 
in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. By 
R. Moore. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. 121110. . $2.50 

MORRIS. — Easy Rules for the Measurement of Earthworks : 
By means of the Prismoidal Formula. Illustrated with Numerom 
Wood-Cuts, Problems, and Examples, and concluded by an Exten- 
sive Table for finding the Solidity in cubic yards from Mean Areas. 
The whole being adapted for convenient use by Engineers, Surveyors, 
Contractors, and others needing Correct Measurements of Earthwork. 
By Elwood Morris, C. E. 8vo #1.50 

MORTON. — The System of Calculating Diameter, Circumfer- 
ence, Area, and Squaring the Circle: 
Together with Interest and Miscellaneous Tables, and other informa- 
tion. By James Morton. Second Edition, enlarged, with the 
Metric System. 121110. . . . . . . . $i.oa 

NAPIER.— Manual of Electro-Metallurgy: 

Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. 
By James Napier. Fourth American, from the Fourth London 
edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated bv engravings. Svo. $1.50 

NAPIER. — A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing. 

By James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi- 
tion. Completely brought up to the present state of the Science, 
including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. Frsqukt, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illus- 
trated. 8vo. 422 pages . . . . . . . $5 .00 

NEVILLE.— Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formulse,~foi 
finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, 
Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers : 
Third Edition, with Additions, consisting of New Formula 1 for the 
Discharge from Tidal and Flood Sluices and Siphons; general infor- 
mation on Rainfall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Wa;er 
Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By Ioh*i Neville, C. E. M R 
I. A. ; Fellow of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Thick 
l2ino $56° 

NEWBERY.— Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every 
style -. 
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1S51 and 
1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of too 
exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. B« 
Robert Newbery. 410. £12.50 

NICHOLLS. —The Theoretical and Practical Boiler-Maker and 
Engineer's Reference Book: 
Containing a variety of Useful Information for Employers of Labor. 
Foremen and Working Boiler-Makers, Iron, Copper, and Tinsmiths* 



20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



Draughtsmen, Engineers, the General Steam-using Public, and for the 
Use of Science Schools and Classes. By Samuel Nicholls. Illus- 
trated by sixteen plates, 121110. ..... $2.50 

NICHOLSON.— A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding : 

Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding, 
Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and 
Paper. By James B. Nicholson. Illustrated. i2mo., cloth $2.25 

NICOLLS.— The Railway Builder: 

A Hand- Book for Estimating the Probable Cost of American Rail- 
way Construction and Equipment. By William J. NlCOLLS, Civil 
Engineer. Illustrated, full bound, pocket-book form . $2.00 

NORMANDY.-The Commercial Handbook of Chemical An- 
alysis : 
Or Practical Instructions for the Determination of the Intrinsic 01 
Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, 
and in the Arts. By A. Normandy. New Edition, Enlarged, and 
to a great extent rewritten. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., 
thick i2mo. ......... $5.00 

MORRIS, — A Handbook for Locomotive Engineers and Ma- 
chinists : 
Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco- 
motives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables of Squares, Cubes, Areas, 
etc., etc. By Septimus Norris, M. E. New edition. Illustrated, 

I2B10 #1.50 

HYSTROM.— A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics : 

Establishing Strict Precision in the Meaning of Dynamical Terms: 
nccompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me- 
trology. By John W. Nystrom, C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. $2.00 

NYSTROM.— On Technological Education and the Construc- 
tion of Ships and Screw Propellers : 
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late 
Acting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi- 
tional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 121110. . #1.50 

O'NEILL. — A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing: 

Containing a brief account of ail the Substances and Processes in 
use in the Art of Dywing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical 
Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, Analy- 
tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and 
their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calico 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 8vo., 
491 pages $5.00 

ORTON.— Underground Treasures'. 

How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination 
of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By James 
Orton, A.M., Late Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, 
N. Y.; Cor. Mem. of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 
and of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York ; author of the 
" Andes and the Amazon," etc. A New Edition, with Additions. 
Illustrated . #1.50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 21 



OSBORN.— The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: 

Theoretical and Practical in all its Branches; with special reference 
to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. OSBORN, LL. D., 
Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton, 
Pennsylvania. Illustrated by numerous large folding plates and 
wood-engravings. 8vo. ...... $25.00 

OSBORN. — A Practical Manual of Minerals, Mines and Min- 
ing : 
Comprising the Physical Properties, Geologic Positions, Local Occur- 
rence and Associations of the Useful Minerals; their Methods of 
Chemical Analysis and Assay : together with Various Systems of 
Excavating and Timbering, Brick and Masonry Work, during Driv- 
ing, Lining, Bracing and other Operations, etc. By Prof. II. S. 
Osborn, LL. D., Author of the " Metallurgy of Iron and Steel." 
Illustrated by 171 engravings from original drawings. 8vo. #4.50 

OVERMAN.— The Manufacture of Steel: 

Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel. 
A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Worker*, in Steel and Iron, Wagon 
Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard- 
ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. 15y 
Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manu- 
facture of Iron," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By 
A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . ^1.50 

OVERMAN.— The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide : 
A Treatise on Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry sand, Loam, 
and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow- 
ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds 
for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, 
Wax, etc. ; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and 
Founding of Metals; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature, 
etc., etc. By Frederick Overman, M. E. A new Edition. to 
which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Ornamental Moulding, 
Ordnance, Malleable Iron Castings, etc. By A. A. FESQUET, Chem- 
ist and Engineer. Illustrated by 44 engravings. i2mo. . $2.00 

PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION; 
Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the A11S 
of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, Glass-Staining, Graining, Marbling, 
Sign-Writing, Gilding on Glass, and Coach Painting and Varnish inu; 
Tests for the Detection of Adulterations in Oils, Colors, etc.; and a 
Statement of the Diseases to which Painters are peculiarly liable, with 
the Simplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth Edition. Revised, wiih 
an Appendix. Containing Colors and Coloring — Theoretical and 
Practical. Comprising descriptions of a great variety of Additional 
Pigments, their Qualities and Uses, to which are added, Dryers, and 
Modes and Operations of Painting, etc. Together with Chevreul's 
Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors. 121110. Cloth 51.50 

PALLETT.— The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's Guide. 
By Henry PALLETT. Illustrated. 121110. . . . $^.oo 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



PERCY.— The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. 

By John Percy, M. D., F. R.vS., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the 
Royal School of Mines, and to The Advance Class of Artillery 
Officers at the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich ; Author of 
" Metallurgy." With Illustrations. 8vo., paper . . 50 cts 

PERKINS.— Gas and Ventilation : 

Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation 
to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific 
Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagrams. 
By E. E. Perkins. 121110., cloth . . . . $1.25 

PERKINS AND STOWE.-A New Guide to the Sheet-iron 
and Boiler Plate Roller : 
Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles 
to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of 
Bars to produce Sheet-iron; the Thickness of the Bar Gaugo 
in decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or 
Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch ; the Weight per 
sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various 
dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle; and the conversion of 
Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. 
Estimated and collected by G. H. Perkins and J. G. Stowe. $2.53 

POWELL— CHANCE— HARRIS.— The Principles of Glass 

Making. 

By Harry J. Powell, B. A. Together with Treatises on Crown and 

Sheet Glass; by Henry Chance, M. A. And Plate Glass, by H. 

G. Harris, Asso. M. Inst. C. E. Illustrated i8mo. . $1.50 

PROCTOR.— A Pocket-Book of Useful Tables and Formulae 
for Marine Engineers : 
By Frank Proctor. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
Full -bound pocket-book form . . . . . ■ $1.50 

REGNAULT.— Elements of Chemistry: 

By M. V. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. Forrest 
Betton, M. D., arid edited, with Notes, by James C. Booth, Melter 
and Refiner U. S. Mint, and William L. Faber, Metallurgist and 
Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood-engravings. Com- 
prising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, Svo., cloth . $7.50 

RICHARDS.— Aluminium : 

Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications, 
including its Alloys. By Joseph W. Richards, A. C, Chemist and 
Practical Metallurgist, Member of the Deutsche Chemische Gesell- 
schaft. Illustrated by 16 engravings. 12 mo. 346 pages $2.50 

RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A Practical 
Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting : 
Comprising the Origin, Definition, and Classification of Colors; the 
Treatment of the Raw Materials ; the best Formulae and the Newest 
Processes for the Preparation of every description of Pigment, and 
the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its Use; Dryers; the 
Testing, Application, and Qualities of Paints, etc., etc. By MM. 
RlFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT. Revised and Edited by M. 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO/S CATALOGUE. 23 

F. Malepeyre. Translated from the French, by A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist anil Engineer. Illustrated by Eighty engravings. In one 
vol.. 8vo., 65Q pages ....... £>/-5° 

ROPER. — A Catechism of High- Pressure, or Non-Condensing 
Steam-Engines : 
Including the Modelling, Constructing, and Management of Stenm- 
Engines and Steam Boilers. With valuable illustrations. By Ste- 
phen Roper, Engineer. Sixteenth edition, revised and enlarged. 
1 8mo., tucks, gilt edge ....... $2.00 

ROPER.— Engineer's Handy-Book: 

Containing a full Explanation of the Steam-Engine Indicator, and its 
Use and Advantages to Engineers and Steam Users. With Formulae 
for Estimating the Power of all Classes of Steam-Engines; also. 
Facts, Figures, Questions, and Tables for Engineers who wish to 
qualify themselves for the United Stales Navy, the Revenue Service, 
the Mercantile Marine, or to take charge of the Better Class of Sta- 
tionary Steam-Engines. Sixth edition. i6mo.. 690 pages, tucks, 
gilt edge #3.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines : 

Including the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Management 
of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers. With illustrations. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Sixth edition. i2mo.,tvcks, gilt edge. 

#3-5C 
ROPER.— Hand-Book of the Locomotive : 

Including the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construc- 
tion, Management, and Running of Locomotives. By Stephen 
Roper. Eleventh edition. iSmo., tucks, gilt edge . $2.50 

ROPER.— Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines. 

With illustrations. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Fourth edition, 
i2mo., tucks, gilt edge $3. 50 

ROPER. — Questions and Answers for Engineers. 

This Hi tie book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be 
asked when undergoing an Examination for the purpose of procuring 
Licenses, and they are so plain that any Engineer or Fireman of or 
dinary intelligence may commit them to memory in a short time. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Third edition . . . #3. 00 

ROPER.— Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler. 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Eighth edition, with illustrations. 
l8mo., tucks, gilt edge $2. 00 

ROSE.— The Complete Practical Machinist : 

Embracing Lnthe Work, Vise Work, Drills and Drilling, Taps and 
Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of Tools, 
Tool Grinding, Marking out Work, etc. By JOSHUA Rose. Illus- 
trated by 356 engravings. Thirteenth edition, thoroughly revised 
and in great part rewritten. In one vol., 121110., 439 pages $2.50 

ROSE.— Mechanical Drawing Self- Taught: 

Comprising Instructions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing 
Instrument, Elementary Instruction in Practic ■! Mechanical Draw 



24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

ing, together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary 
Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical 
Motions, Engines and Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated 
by 330 engravings. 8vo ,313 pnges .... $4-00 

ROSE.— The Slide- Valve Practically Explained: 

Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of the 
operation of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrat- 
ing the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples care- 
fully selected from the most recent and successful practice. By 
Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 35 engravings . $1.00 

ROSS. — The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology : 
Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Work- 
ing Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By LlEUT.- 
Colonel W. A. Ross, R. A., F. G. S. With 120 Illustrations. 
i2mo £3-50 

SHAW.— Civil Architecture: 

Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, con- 
taining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward Shaw, 
Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc. 
By Thomas W. Sili.oway and George M. Harding, Architects. 
The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper. 
Eleventh edition. 4to. ....... $10.00 

SHUNK. — A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Loca- 
tion, for Young Engineers. 
By W. F. Shunk, C. E. l2mo. Full bound pocket-book form $2.00 

SLATER.— The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares. 
By J. W. Slater. i2mo $3.75 

SLOAN. — American Houses : 

A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 
26 colored engravings, with descriptive references. By Samuel 
Sloan, Architect. 8vo. $150 

SLOAN. — Homestead Architecture : 

Containing Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm-houses, with 
Essays on Style, Construction, Landscape Gardening, Furniture, etc., 
etc. Illustrated by upwards of 200 engravings. By Samuel Sloan, 
Architect. 8vo. ........ #3.50 

SLOANE. — Home Experiments in Science. 

By T. O' Conor Sloane, E. M., A.M., Ph.D. Illustrated by 91 
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SMEATON.— Builder's Pocket-Companion : 

Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture; 

with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject. 

By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. 121110. . . £"1.50 
SMITH. — A Manual of Political Economy. 

By E. Peshine Smith. A New Edition, to which is added a full 

Index. i2mo. . $125 



HENRY CAREY BaIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 25 

SMITH— Parks and Pleasure-Grounds : 

Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and 
Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and 
Garden Architect, etc., etc. l2mo. .... #2.00 

SMITH.— The Dyer's Instructor: 

Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton, 
Wool, and Worsted, and Woolen Goods; containing nearly 800 
Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and 
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the 
various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. 
By David Smith, Pattern Dyer. i2mo. . . . $3.00 

SMYTH. — A Rudimentary Treatise on Coal and Coal-Mining. 
By Warrington W. Smyth, M. A., F. R. G., President R. G. S. 
of Cornwall. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. With numer- 
ous illustrations. I2mo. ...... # 1 .75 

SNIVELY. — A Treatise on the Manufacture of Perfumes and 
Kindred Toilet Articles. 
By John H. Snively, Phr. D., Professor of Analytical Chemistry in 
the Tennessee College of Pharmacy. 8vo. . . . $3.00 

SNIVELY.— Tables for Systematic Qualitative Chemical Anal- 
ysis. 
By John H. Snively, Phr. D. 8vo. .... $1.00 

SNIVELY.— The Elements of Systematic Qualitative Chemical 
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$2.00 

STEWART.— The American System : 

Speeches on the Tariff Question, and on Internal Improvements, 
principally delivered in the House of Representatives of the United 
.States. By ANDREW Stewart, late M. C. from Pennsylvania. 
With a Portrait, and a Biographical Sketch. 8vo. . . $3.00 

STOKES.— The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Companion-. 
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etc., etc. i2mo * . - 5125 

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS. 
Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of 
Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Testing 
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SULLIVAN.— Protection to Native Industry. 

By Sir Edward Sullivan, Baronet, author of "Ten Chapters on 
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26 HENRY CAREY BAIRu & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



SYME.— Outlines of an Industrial Science. 

By David Syme. 121110. - . . $2.oci 

TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, 
SQUARE, AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC., 

By Measurement. Clolh 63 

TAYLOR.— Statistics of Coal: 

Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and 
Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial 
Distribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the 
American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manu- 
facture. By R. C. Taylor. Second edition, revised by S. S. Halde- 
MAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo., 
cloth $10.00 

TEMPLETON. — The Practical Examinator on Steam and the 
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With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of 
Engineers, Students, and others. By William Templeton, En- 
gineer. i2mo. ...... . $1.25 

THAUSING.— The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of 
Malt and the Fabrication of Beer: 
With especial reference to the Vienna Process of Brewing. Elab- 
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at the School for Brewers, and at the Agricultural Institute, Modling, 
near Vienna. Translated from the German by William T. Brannt, 
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according to the latest and most Scientific Practice, by A. Schwarz 
and Dr. A. H. Bauer. Illustrated by 140 Engravings. 8vo., 815 
pages $10.00 

THOMAS.— The Modern Practice of Photography: 

By R. W. Thomas, F. C. S. 8vo. .... 75 

THOMPSON.— Political Economy. With Especial Reference 
to the Industrial History of Nations : 
By Robert E. Thompson, M. A., Professor of Social Science in the 
University of Pennsylvania. i2mo. . . ■ . . $1.50 

THOMSON.— Freight Charges Calculator: 

By Andrew Thomson, Freight Agent. 2iimo. . . $1.25 
TURNER'S (THE) COMPANION: 

Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn. 
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Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and 
Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working them 
l2mo $1.25 

TURNING : Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed on the 

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With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting 

Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs. 

4to. $3.00 

URBIN— BRULL.— A Practical Guide for Puddling Iron and 
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By El). Urbin, Engineer of Arb> and Manufactures. A Prize Essay, 



HENRY CAREY BA1RD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of 
Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1865-6. To which is 
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VAILE.— Galvanized-Iron Cornice-Worker's Manual: 

Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and 
Making Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, 
Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other 
Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By Charles A. Vaile. 
Illustrated by twenty-one plates. 4to $5.00 

VILLE. — On Artificial Manures : 

Their Chemical Selection and Scientific Application to Agriculture. 
A series of Lectures given at the Experimental Farm at Vincennes, 
during 1867 and 1874-75. By M. Georges Ville. Translated and 
Edited by William Crookes, F. R. S. Illustrated by thirty-one 
engravings. 8vo., 450 pages ...... $6.00 

VILLE.— The School of Chemical Manures : 
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the French of M. Geo. Ville, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En- 
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VOGDES. — The Architect's and Builder's Pocket- Companior. 
and Price-Book : 
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Frank W. Vogdes, Architect, Indianapolis, Ind. Enlarged, revised, 
and corrected. In one volume, 368 pages, full-bound, pocket-book 
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Cloth . 1.50 

WAHL. — Galvanoplastic Manipulations : 

A Practical Guide lor the Gold and Silver Electroplater and the Gal- 
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Metals by means of the Battery and the Dynamo-Electric Machine, 
as well as the most approved Processes of Deposition by Simple Im- 
mersion, with Descriptions of Apparatus, Chemical Products employed 
in the Art, etc. Based largely on* the "Manipulations Hydioplas- 
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(Heid), Secretary of the Franklin Institute. Illustrated by 1S9 en- 
gravings. 8vo., 656 pages $7-5° 

WALTON.— Coal-Mining Described and Illustrated: 
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zS HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

WARE.— The Sugar Beet. 

. Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Varieties- 
of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing, 
Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transportation, Conserva- 
tion, Feeding Qualities of the Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By LEWIS 
S. Ware, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. 8vo. 

WARN.— The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor: 
For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin- Plate Workers, etc. Contain- 
ing a selection of Geometrical Problems; also, Practical and Simple 
Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different 
branches of the above Trades. By REUBEN H. Warn, Practical 
Tin-Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing 
Instructions for Boiler-Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, 
Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and 
Steel, Tables of the W T eights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty- 
two Plates and thirty-seven Wood Engravings. 8vo. . $3.00 

WARNER.— New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for the 
Computation of Earth-work : 

Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates, 
of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes. 
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Containing Notes to the Rules and Examples of Part I.; Explana- 
tions of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a 
Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights. 
The whole illustrated by numerous original engravings, comprising 
explanatory cuts for Definitions and Problems, Stereometric Scales 
and Diagrams, and a series of Lithographic Drawings from Models. 
Showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad 
Excavations and Embankments. By John Warner, A. M., Mining 
and Mechanical Engineer. Illustrated by 14 Plates. A new, revised 
and improved edition. 8vo. ...... $4.00 

WATSON.— A Manual of the Hand-Lathe : 

Comprising Concise Directions for Working Metals of all kinds, 
Ivory, Bone and Precious Woods; Dyeing, Coloring, and French 
Polishing; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to 
produce Elaborate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By 
Egbert P. Watson, Author of " The Modern Practice of American 
Machinists and Engineers." Illustrated by 78 engravings. $1.50 

WATSON. — The Modern Practice of American Machinists and 
Engineers : 
Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lnthe 
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow-work generall) , with 
the most Economical Speed for the same ; the Results verified by 
Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the Floor. Together 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 29 

with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam 
Engine, Boiltrs, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By Egbert P. Watson. 
Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. 121110. . . . £2.50 

WATSON.— The Theory and Practice of the Art of Weaving 
by Hand and Power : 
With Calculations and Tables for the Use of those connected with the 
Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Practical Machine 
Maker. Illustrated by large Drawings of the best Power Looms. 
8vo - • 57-50 

WATT.— The Art of Soap Making : 

A Practical Hand-book of the Manufactuie of Hard and Soft Soaps, 
Toilet Soaps, etc., including many New Processes, and a Chapter on 
the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By Alexander 
Watt. 111. 121110. $3-co 

WEATHERLY.— Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, Crys- 
tallizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum Goods, 
And other processes for Confectionery, etc., in which are explained, 
in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods of Manufactur. 
iag every Description of Raw and Refined Suga.- Goods, as sold by 
Confectioners and others. 1 21110. ..... $ 1.50 

WIGHTWICK.— Hints to Young Architects: 

Comprising Advice to those who, while yet at school, are destined 
to the Profession; to such as, having passed their pupilage, are about 
to travel ; and to those who, having completed their education, are 
about to practise. Together with a Model Specification involvii.g a 
great variety of instructive and suggestive matter. By GF.ORGE 
WlGHTWiCK, Architect. A new edition, revised and considerably 
enlarged; comprising Treatises on the Principles of Construction 
and Design. By G. Huskisson Gltllaume, Architect. Numerous 
Illustrations. One vol. i2mo. ...... £2.00 

WILL. — Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. 

With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analysis. By Pro- 
fessor Heinrich Will, of Gie^sen. Germany. Third American, 
from the eleventh German edition. Edited by Charles F. Himes, 
Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa 
8vo. . $1-50 

WILLIAMS.— On Heat and Steam: 

Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explo- 
sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated 8vo. 

$3 5° 

WILSON.— A Treatise on Steam Boilers : 

Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By ROBERT 
Wilson. Illustrated i2mo $2.50 

WILSON.— First Principles of Political Economy: 

With Reference to Statesmanship and the Progress of Civilization. 
By Professor W. D. Wilson, of the Cornell University. A new 
revised edition. 121110. ....... 



30 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



WOHLER. — A Hand-Bookof Mineral Analysis : 

By F. WoHLER, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Gottin- 
gen. Edited by Henry B. Nasox, Professor of Chemistry in the 
Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated. 
I2IHO $3-°° 

WORSSAM.— On Mechanical Saws: 

From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1869. By S. W. 
Worssam, Jr. Illustrated by eighteen large plates. 8vo. $2.50 



RECENT ADDITIONS. 

ANDERSON.— The Prospector's Hand-Book : 

A Guide for the Prospector and Traveler in Search of Metal Bearing 
or other Valuable Minerals. By J. W. Anderson. 52 Illustrations. 
121110 $1.50 

BEAUMONT.— Woollen and Worsted Cloth Manufacture: 

Being a Practical Treatise for the use of all persons employed in the 
manipulation of Textile Fabrics. By Robert Beaumont, M. S. A. 
With over 200 illustrations, including Sketches of Machinery, 
Designs, Cloths, etc. 391 pp. 121110 #2.50 

BRANNT.— The Metallic Alloys: 

A Practical Guide for the Manufacture of all kinds of Alloys, Amal- 
gams and Solders used by Metal Workers, especially by Bell Founders, 
Bronze Workers, Tinsmiths, Gold and Silver Workers, Dentists, etc., 
etc., as well as their Chemical and Physical Properties. Edited 
chiefly from the German of A. Krupp and Andreas Wildberger, with 
additions by Wm. T. Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. (In press) 

CROSS.— The Cotton Yarn Spinner: 

Showing how the Preparation should be arranged for Differen 
Counts of Yarns by a System more uniform than has hitherto been 
practiced; by having a Standard Schedule from which we make all 
our Changes. By Richard Cross. 122 pp. 121110. . $1.25 

GRANT.— A Hand-Book on the Teeth of Gears : 

Their Curves, Properties, and Practical Construction. By George 
B. Grant. Illustrated. Second Edition, enlarged. Svo. $1.00 

MAKINS.— A Manual of Metallurgy: 

By George Hogarth Makins, M. R. C. S., S. C. S. Illustrated 
by 100 engravings. Second edition rewritten and much enlarged. 
8vo., 592 pages $3-00 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 31 



POSSELT.— The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained : 
With an Appendix on the Preparation of Jacquard Cards, and 
Practical Hints to Learners of Jacquard Designing. By E. A. 
PosSELT. With 230 illustrations and numerous diagrams. 127 pp. 
4to $5- o:> 

ROPER. — Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and 
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By Stephen Roper, Engineer $2.00 

ROPER.— The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management: 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. 121110., tuck, gilt edges . $2.00 

ROPER. — The Young Engineer's Own Book : 

Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which 
the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By Stephen ROPER, 
Engineer. 160 illustrations, 363 pages. i8mo., tuck . #300 

ROSE.— Modern Steam-Engines : 

An Elementary Treatise upon the Steam-Engine, written in Plain 
language ; for Use in the Workshop as well as in the Drawing Office. 
Giving Full Explanations of the Construction of Modern Steam- 
Engines: Including Diagrams showing their Actual operation. To- 
gether with Complete but Simple Explanations of the operations of 
Various Kinds of Valves, Valve Motions, and Link Motions, etc., 
thereby Enabling the Ordinary Engineer to Clearly Understand the 
Principles Involved in their Construction and Use, and to Plot out 
their Movements upon the Drawing Board. By Joshua Rose, M. E. 
Illustrated by 422 engravings. 410, 320 pages . . $6.00 

ROSE —Steam Boilers : 

A Practical Treatise on Boiler Construction and Examination, for the 
Use of Practical Boiler Makers, Boiler Users, and Inspectors; and 
embracing in plain figures all the calculations necessary in Designing 
or Classifying Steam Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated 
by 73 engravings. 250 pages. 8vo. .... £2.50 



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Edited chiefly from the German of Drs. Winckler, Eisner, Heintzej 
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WITH ADDITIONS BY 

WILLIAM T. BRANNT, 

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AND 

WILLIAM H. WAHL, PH. D. (Held.), 

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Illustrated by Seventy-eight Engravings. 

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